Electric lighting devices. Lighting. Characteristics of Household Lighting

This group includes more instruments than all the others. There is an electric lamp in absolutely every lighting device. Lamps are very different: according to the principle of operation, in shape, in power, in size, etc.

Incandescent lamp

Almost all lamps that are used at home use incandescent lamps with a power of 25 to 100 W, a voltage of 215-225 V, 220-230 V, 230-240 V, 235-245 V. In fig. 57 shows incandescent lamps.

Figure: 57.:
a - with a ball flask; b - krypton with a mushroom-shaped flask; c - with a candle-shaped flask and a reduced base

The principle of operation of all lighting lamps is based on the heating of a tungsten filament by a passing electric current. In order for the brightness of the lamps to be less, the bulbs are made of frosted glass. Lamps that contain krypton are considered the most economical. Their power is 40-100 watts. Typically, incandescent lamps last about 1000 hours, but if the mains voltage constantly exceeds the nominal value, the lamps burn out.

Figure: 58.:
a - tubular; b - lamp of LTBTsP type; c - lamp of type LTBTSAO; d - arc high pressure mercury fluorescent lamp (DRL)

For illumination of both residential and utility rooms, fluorescent lamps with a tubular bulb are quite often used (Fig. 58). Such lamps are available with a power of 20 and 40 watts. The service life of fluorescent lamps is much longer than incandescent lamps. In addition, they are also more economical. The most common disadvantage of fluorescent lamps is that they are difficult to ignite at temperatures below 5 ° C. Table 33 given specifications lighting lamps.

Lamp

An electric lamp combined with lighting equipment is called a luminaire. Luminaires are chandeliers, sconces, floor lamps, table lamps, shades, etc. In order to direct the light flux from the lamp to the right place, as well as to protect human eyes from bright glow, reflectors, diffusers and lampshades are used.

Figure: 59.:
1 - wall cartridge; 2 - case; 3 - cap

Figure: 60.:
1 - screws or dowels; 2 - hole for wires; 3 - socket; 4 - screws; 5 - lampshade; 6 - ceiling cartridge

Wall lamp (fig. 59). It is a housing to which a wall holder is attached. The body has a thread for the opaque glass hood. Luminaires of this type are usually hung in damp and damp areas (for example, a bathroom or toilet).

Ceiling lamp (fig. 60). It can be seen from the figure that a wooden rosette (base) is first attached to the ceiling using screws or dowels. Then the lamp body is attached to it. Wires are pulled through a special hole. After that, the ceiling socket is screwed to the body and the round lampshade is fixed with three screws.

Figure: 61.:
1 - screws; 2 - case; 3 - staples; 4 - hole; 5 - nipples; 6 - lampshade; 7 - lamp base; 8 - hole; 9 - screw

Figure: 62.:
1 - lampshade; 2 - bezel; 3 - cartridge; 4 - case; 5 - switch; 6 - insulating sleeve

Figure: 63.:
1 - wire; 2 - legs for fixing the lampshade; 3 - lampshade

Figure: 64.:
1 - screw; 2 - diffuser; 3 - base; 4 - removable cover; 5 - hole; 6 - spring lamp holder; 7 - hole; 8 - block; 9 - capacitor; 10 - ballast; 11 - starter; 12 - cartridge

Plafond (fig. 61). This type of luminaire has two sockets that are fixed to the brackets with nipples. The brackets, in turn, are mounted on the body. As in the previous case, the wires are fed through a special hole. The lampshade is fixed to the body with three screws. When mounting the luminaire on the wall, use the hole on the body. The head of the screw, previously screwed into the wall, is introduced into it, and the plafond is pulled down. The lamp will hang from a screw.

Table lamp (fig. 62). Table lamps are of various kinds, form and purpose. Such a lamp consists of a base, a stand, a lampshade and a lamp. There is a switch at the base of the lamp. The cartridge is mounted on the body, and the lampshade is held in place by the bezel. With the help of an insulating sleeve, the cord is taken out of the luminaire and, for better fixation, is wound with insulating tape.

Suspended lamp (fig. 63). Luminaires of this kind are suspended from a wire. The lampshade is fixed with feet, but if it has a special shape and holes, it can be mounted directly on the holder.

Fluorescent lamps. The external view of a wall lamp with a fluorescent lamp is shown in Fig. 64. A diffuser is installed on the flanged base of the luminaire and fixed with screws. In addition, a removable cover serves as a mount. Also, a lamp holder is mounted on the base, which has a starter, ballast, a capacitor for suppressing radio interference, a block for connecting the luminaire to the network and a spring lamp holder. Luminaires of this kind are used in auxiliary residential and public buildings.

Photo flash
Photospy? Shka (pulse photo light, IFO) - a lamp with which instant illumination of the subject is carried out when photographing.
The main element of modern photographic flash is a pulsed gas discharge lamp. A pulsed gas-discharge lamp is a sealed glass tube, straight, spiral, arcuate or annular, filled with xenon. Electrodes are soldered into the ends of the tube, and outside there is an ignition electrode, which is a strip of conductive mastic or a piece of wire. A spark discharge in a lamp occurs when its electrodes are connected to a relatively powerful source of high voltage (hundreds of volts), usually an electric capacitor that accumulates an electric charge in the interval between flashes, and a high-voltage (of the order of thousands of volts) pulse from a pulse transformer is applied to the ignition electrode, which ionizes the gas in the tube, allowing the accumulated charge in the working capacitor to discharge. During the discharge, accompanied by an intense flash of light with a luminous intensity of several hundred thousand candles, the voltage across the capacitor drops, and the discharge stops. After that, the capacitor in conventional flash lamp power supply circuits is charged again, and when the pulse is applied to the ignition electrode again, the lamp can give another flash.
There are (and have been widely used in the past) chemical flash units. The most common type was magnesium.
On the basis of automation, flash units are divided into:
non-automatic, giving a predetermined amount of light
automatic, measuring the illumination by their own sensor, or by a sensor located in the camera (eng.TL, Through The Lens, - through the lens)
automatic, measuring the illumination during the main impulse or according to the preliminary, evaluative impulse (E-TTL, English evaluative).
Whenever possible, flash units are classified as follows with cameras from different manufacturers:
System, that is, suitable only for cameras of one specific company (system). These flashes usually allow TTL and / or E-TTL (P-TTL, S-TTL, i-TTL, D-TTL, etc.) light metering and other advanced functions to be used.
Universal flashes with one central contact are relatively inexpensive and widespread in the system, but it is necessary to carefully read the instructions for such a flash before installing it on the camera - many of them are built according to high voltage switching circuits and such flashes cannot be installed on modern cameras in order to avoid damage to the electronics high voltage apparatus, but only to cameras with a mechanical shutter. Typically, the power of such flashes is controlled by the light sensor in the flash itself.
There are also universal flashes with a special connector, which can be connected to a camera of a certain manufacturer through a special system adapter.
By location in relation to the camera, flashes are:
Built in the camera. They are usually not very powerful, due to their proximity to the axis of the lens, they give a "flat" image, almost without shadows, poorly highlight the structure. Their main advantage is that they are always with a camera and practically do not increase the dimensions and weight of the camera. They are also very useful when shooting on a bright sunny day, to highlight harsh shadows from sunlight. The closer to the optical axis, the more pronounced the red-eye effect. In this case, it is maximum.
Fixed on the camera. They are usually more powerful than the built-in ones. They also give a flat image with sharp small shadows. Many, however, have the ability to turn the head up (some also to the side), so that you can direct the flash not directly at the subject, but at a white ceiling, or a reflective screen, and get lighting more like natural. It also reduces red-eye.
Flash units not attached to the camera. They make it possible to flexibly change the lighting conditions depending on the ideas of the photographer. For example, to obtain soft lighting, you can aim the flash not directly at the subject, but at a white ceiling or reflective screen, and get lighting that is more like natural. Such flashes are controlled either through a cable connection to the camera, or wirelessly (IR, flash control, radio). In this way, multiple flashes can be controlled simultaneously, it becomes possible to illuminate the subject from different angles and creates better lighting conditions than other flashes.
Macro flashes. For macro photography, flash units are used in the form of a ring or a pair of flash systems on brackets that are mounted on the lens. Camera-mounted flashes for macro photography are ineffective: the lens blocks the flash.
If possible wirelessly:
Capable of working in both master and slave modes. They are found both among the system and among the universal ones. The former allow you to control (and can be controlled) with various advanced capabilities - pulse power, create groups of flashes with different control channels, measure the illumination of the subject; the latter simply fire on the pulse of the master flash.
Able to work only in slave mode - as a rule, these are medium-level system flashes. However, in manual mode (without using a pre-flash) they can be used as a master for universal flash units.
Able to work only as a leader. These are either specialized system control flashes that give a control IR pulse, but do not give the main flash, or the simplest flashes, which with their main impulse can trigger the slave (universal).
In some cases, a stroboscope is used as a flash (some flashes can work in this mode with a decrease in the pulse power) with a long open shutter and low overall illumination. This type of photography is used when it is necessary to capture the phases of movement of the subject (for example, how a cat falls on its paws) in the image.
Parameters
The main characteristic is the guide number, the distance at which normal illumination is achieved at a film sensitivity of 130 units. GOST (140 ISO; 22-23 DIN; 110 Weston; 180 General Electric) and aperture number 1.

When the film sensitivity is halved, the guide number changes 1.4 times (square root of 2).
Calculation example
Initial data
Guide number: 24
Film: 800 pcs. ISO
Distance: 15m
Recalculation of the leading number:
Closest standard aperture value: 4
Usually, non-automatic flash units have on the back wall either a table to simplify calculations, or a simple mechanical aperture calculator based on the principle of an adding machine. More sophisticated flashes can also have an automatic aperture calculator, the results of which are displayed on the built-in LCD screen.
Application
Insufficient illumination is the most frequent (albeit the most unsuccessful) use of a flash. In this case, the flash usually illuminates the subject from the side of the camera, and therefore the image is "flat", the structure and relief are weakly distinguished. Moving the flash a distance from the camera does not solve the problem, because although relief and shadows appear, the shadows are usually very sharp and deep, with poor detailing. These pictures look very unprofessional. Sometimes it saves the day if there is a light reflecting surface near the subject (sometimes you can use a ceiling), and then the light from the flash, reflected from this surface, can create a softer key light.
Shadow Highlighting - if shooting on a bright sunny day, very contrasting deep shadows are obtained. Using the flash to highlight shadows softens the shadows and makes the image softer. In this case, you have to be careful if the camera has a focal plane shutter, and in bright sunlight the exposure time may turn out to be such that the shutter does not open completely (for example, a slit moves in a focal plane shutter at short exposures) - then it is impossible to shoot with a flash, because the flash light will only hit part of the picture. Some modern flashes compensate for this by producing a large number of weak pulses.
When shooting against a bright backlight (for example, a person in a room against a bright window), the flash illuminates the foreground.
Sports and reportage photography. When shooting fast moving subjects, the flash allows you to shoot with very fast shutter speeds (if the shutter type allows you to shoot with such flash speeds). This helps to combat the "smearing" of fast moving objects.
When shooting in a studio, combined illuminators are used, consisting of a powerful flash and a source of constant "modeling" light, which allows the photographer to assess the future lighting picture.

Exposure meters
Expono meter (lat. expono) - a device, device or table for calculating exposure parameters (exposure time and aperture number) in photography and cinematography.
Exposure meters are divided by device type into:
Tabular
They are a table that describes the shooting conditions and the corresponding parameters. They make practical sense only if the photographic width of the photographic material used is sufficiently large. They are also used in the form of setting the exposure according to weather symbols on scale cameras ("Change-Symbol", "Agat-18").
Optical
Devices in which the human eye is the main comparison element.

The exposure time or the aperture number is read by visually comparing the brightness of the corresponding numbers with the brightness of the optical wedge of variable density. The main disadvantage is the dependence of the sensitivity of the eye on the general ambient illumination, which can lead to large errors. Now they are practically not used ("Optek").
Equalization of the brightness of two comparison fields, one from the measured scene or light source, the second from a reference lamp. Finds application in image copying systems.
Photoelectronic
The flux of light is perceived by an electronic photocell, and the required value is read from the scale by the deviation of the arrow or from a digital indicator.
In turn, they can be divided into:
Selenium
Devices using photodiodes based on a selenium photocell do not require batteries (the necessary EMF is generated by a photocell), have the simplest electrical circuit, but have low sensitivity and irreversibly degrade when exposed to too bright a light flux (the error increases); (Exposure meters "Leningrad-1,2,4,7,8,10", exposure meters on cameras "Kiev-3,4", on some Zenits and FEDs).
Photoresistor
Devices using photoresistors as a sensor, and in some cases, photodiodes in reverse current mode. The simplest scheme of such an exposure meter is built on the bridge principle, and the resistance of the sensor is compared with the reference, switchable by the shutter speed and aperture calculator. The indicator is a galvanometer showing the direction of rotation of the exposure calculator. More complex circuits with active elements (transistors) have become more widespread, LEDs have been used as an indicator to increase mechanical reliability, and a calculator is usually associated with a variable resistor. ("Sverdlovsk-2" and "Sverdlovsk-4"). They have the best sensitivity and linearity of characteristics, low consumption.
Digital
They usually contain the same sensor as the photoresistor ones, however, the signal from it is digitized and further processed by a microprocessor device. They feature greater flexibility and range of measurement capabilities, but significantly higher power consumption from batteries.
Devices that measure illumination (the amount of light falling on an object) or brightness (the amount of light reflected from an object), and the luminance meters are divided according to the angle of measurement into devices that have a large measurement angle (about 45 degrees), and narrow-beam ones - spotmeters (English spot - spot) with an angle of about 1 degree, and are considered the most professional.
Similar devices.
A device similar to the exposure meter - flash meter used to measure light when shooting with a flash. Flash meters can measure both incident and reflected light. Since the shutter speed when shooting with a flash has little effect on the amount of light reaching the light-sensitive material, only the aperture value is determined using the flash meter. Shutter speed is usually set to sync speed, which is determined by the design of the shutter.
A more versatile device - multimeter - having absorbed the possibilities, as well as being able to combine them, from an exposure meter and a flash meter - to work, respectively, under constant, pulsed, and mixed lighting.

Literature
1. Exposure meter // Photo cinematography: Encyclopedia / Editor-in-Chief EA Iofis. - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1981.
2. Yashtold-Govorko VA Photographing and processing. Shooting, formulas, terms, recipes. Ed. 4th, abbr. M., "Art", 1977.
3. Handbook of the amateur photographer. - M .: Art, 1961.
etc.................

Electrical lighting fixtures consist of:

• light source,
• fastening (electrical) fittings,
• reflector (diffuser) of the luminous flux.

As a light source, electric lamps of various designs can be used, as an alternative to them, LED lighting is increasingly being used, where the light source is semiconductor elements - LEDs.

Despite the variety of designs and principles of operation, light sources have a number of general characteristics which, along with the supply voltage, include:

• light flow,
• light output,
• illumination,
• color temperature,
• color transfer.

PARAMETERS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHTING DEVICES

Here are listed and will be considered the parameters of practical interest for the selection of one or another lighting device or light source.

Light flow is the power of light (optical) radiation, measured in lumens (lm). Omitting theoretical calculations and definitions, I will say at a purely everyday level - this is the amount of light emitted by a source, the larger it is, the brighter the light. What has been said is very abstract, so far we cannot derive any benefit from this for ourselves, so let's go further.

Light output... Determines the ability of a light source to convert electrical energy into light, measured lumen / watt (lm / W), which is essentially the efficiency.

An ideal source is capable of delivering 683 lm / W, in practice this value is naturally less. For incandescent lamps, for example, the luminous efficiency is 10-15, fluorescent lamps up to 75, high-power LEDs over 100 lm / W.

This is already something. Since everyone is well aware of a 100 W incandescent lamp, they can now imagine the luminous flux of 1200 lm that it emits. In addition, this indicator allows you to assess the level of energy savings. Obviously, with the same light output, a fluorescent lamp consumes electrical energy 4-5 times less than an incandescent lamp.

Illumination... This parameter characterizes the value of the luminous flux per unit area. Measured in lux (lx). 1lk \u003d 1lm / 1sq. Illumination depends on the design of the reflector, the distance to the light source, and their number. For estimation, the normal reading illumination is 500 lux. Illumination on a sunny summer day at the latitude of Moscow can reach 100,000 lux, and on a full moon - up to 0.5 lux.

Colour temperature... Radiation of a specific color is characterized by its wavelength. Visible radiation of red color has the shortest wavelength, blue - the longest. To simplify to the extreme, the color temperature characterizes the color of the radiation. It's very primitive, but enough for us. Measured in degrees Kelvin (0 K). Again, an example of how light of different temperatures is visually perceived:

• warm white - about 3000-3300 0 K,
• neutral white - 3300-5000 0 K,
• cold white - more than 5000 0 K.

Color rendering index Ra... It is an indicator of the naturalness of perceived colors. The higher the value of this index has a lighting device (light source), the better the color rendering. Color rendering index 70-100 characterizes color rendering from good (70) to excellent (90-100).

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A luminaire is a light fixture that redistributes the light of the lamp inside the premises and makes the angular concentration of the luminous flux. It must effectively diffuse light and illuminate buildings, interiors and the surrounding landscape. Luminaires, depending on their type, can perform both lighting and light-signaling functions. Inside there can be an incandescent lamp or a discharge lamp, mixed light lamps and LED lamps are also used. There are stationary and mobile, portable lamps. They can be powered by mains or batteries. Recently, more and more often the industry produces lamps with the ability to adjust the light characteristics.

Chandeliers are most often used indoors. These are pendant ceiling lights. They consist of several lamps or candlesticks, and also include some elements to diffuse light. All lamps or lamp combinations may light up, depending on the connection method. increasingly equipped with remote controls. This is very convenient because you can switch lamp combinations without having to step up to the switch. Dimmers are also often used, which smoothly switch the light. Lamps not only illuminate rooms, but also perform decorative functions.

Is a pendant light attached to a wall. Such devices replace chandeliers in small rooms. For example, if the room is small and with low ceilings, then it makes no sense to hang a chandelier, and a sconce saves the situation. At the same time, sconces are able to illuminate individual sections of the walls and, therefore, divide the room into sectors, which is used quite often in modern design. Sconces create a romantic atmosphere and are used simply as decoration of rooms.

In modern rooms, floor lamps are still often used - floor or table lamps. They usually have a tall stand with a shade to protect them from direct light. It turns out that dim, diffused light does not harm the eyes. Floor lamps are also used to create a cozy, friendly atmosphere. Floor lamps can be both portable and stationary. There are floor lamps, the length of the stand of which can be changed, as well as the intensity of the light flux. The light source is not necessarily one - there are several. There are special floor lamps for outdoor use.

Incandescent lamps are used as a direct light source. Depending on the purpose, incandescent lamps can be divided into:
general purpose incandescent lamps (intended for general, local and decorative lighting purposes);

• decorative incandescent lamps (produced in special flasks);
• incandescent lamps for local lighting (designed for safe voltage, often used in hand-held lamps);
• illuminating lamps (usually low power);
• mirrored incandescent lamps (have a specially shaped bulb, covered with a special reflective layer);
• incandescent signal lamps (used in light signaling devices);
• transport incandescent lamps (a wide group of lamps to work in different vehicles);
• incandescent commutator lamps (used to operate in various display panels).

You need to think about the choice of lighting devices for the home even at the stage of planning a new interior. The task is difficult, especially since you need to take into account the characteristics of each room. We offer to walk through the rooms and decide on the most suitable lamps for them.

Hallway

Lighting for a hallway is extremely important as it helps create a welcoming atmosphere in the hallway. The most suitable choice would be a large table or floor lamp and chandelier. If there are paintings on the walls, then you should take care of their illumination.

Living room

The lighting in the living room must be properly balanced. The room is used both for various entertainment events and for relaxing rest. Therefore, you need to think not only about chandeliers and pendant lamps, but also about floor lamps and sconces. And there must be a regulator that reduces the light intensity.

Canteen

The dining room is considered to be one of the simplest rooms in terms of lighting, as the dining table is always in the spotlight. Chandeliers, pendant lights will do. If you want to emphasize some detail, you can think of a table lamp or directional lighting.

Kitchen

The kitchen requires a complex lighting system, since it has more than one compositional center. Therefore, there should be general lighting here to perform certain work, but additional lighting is also needed above the work surface, sink or bar. Pendant lights will become a versatile choice, you can also think about spot lighting.

Bedroom

For the bedroom, soft lighting is ideal to promote relaxation and relaxation. Table lamps are usually used, but sconces will also do the job perfectly. Be sure to take into account the need for directional light in order to focus on a painting or photograph. Do not forget here about the light intensity regulator.

Bathroom

Almost everyone knows about the need for lamps near the mirror, but the main task is to find the right place for them. They need to be placed at face level. Spotlights in the bathroom will only emphasize its comfort. And there must be general lighting.

Home Office

By far the main source of light in a home office is a desk lamp, which will help reduce eye strain. However, the overhead light will be incredibly useful in cloudy weather. The directional light plays a more decorative function, thanks to it the room looks more attractive. Having dealt with the location of the lamps, you can start choosing them, but sometimes you just wonder.