Terminological vocabulary examples. The place of terminological vocabulary in modern Russian. How many special words are allowed

Very often in explanatory dictionaries you can find a special mark next to the word - "special", which means special. These word forms are not used everywhere, but refer only to professional or terminological vocabulary. What is this vocabulary and what are the rules for its use in modern speech? Find out in this article!

Special vocabulary: terms

There are two lexical categories, the words of which are used by people of a narrow circle: one profession, the field of science and technology. These are professionalisms and terms.

Very often, next to a similar word, the scope of their use is also indicated, for example, physics, medicine, mathematics, etc. How to delimit these special words?

Scientific terms are understood as words or phrases that name various concepts of a certain scientific activity, or a production process or a sphere of art.

Each term is defined, that is, it has its own definition that helps to present the essence of the object or phenomenon it calls. Terms are the most accurate and at the same time simplified or brief description of the reality that it denotes. Moreover, each industry has its own terminological system.

Scientific terms have several "layers", that is, they differ in the type of sphere of use. All this is explained by the peculiarities of the object that this term denotes.

The first layer is general scientific terms. They are needed in different fields of knowledge. These words always belong to the scientific style of speech and often overlap in different books, as they allow us to describe different areas of life and, accordingly, different scientific research.

Terms examples:

The professor conducted a physical experiment.
Scientists have found adequate approach to problem solving.
Does it exist equivalent oxygen on other planets?
It was difficult for graduate students predict further developments after bad experience.
This was hypothetical question!
Russian science progresses day by day.
Reaction given reagent on nitrogen was too stormy.

All scientific terms in the examples are in a special font. As you can see, these words form a common conceptual fund of different fields of science and have the highest frequency of use.

Special terms

The second layer is special terms that reflect the concepts of certain scientific disciplines.

Terms examples:

Subject in this sentence, it is incorrectly defined by the students (this word refers to linguistics).
Periodontitis it is treated within a month with open canals of the tooth (this word refers to medicine).
Devaluation also touched our currency (this word refers to the economy).
supernova we won't be able to see until next month (the word refers to astronomy).
Injector junk again (this word refers to the automotive industry).
Knechts on the pier were free (this word refers to shipbuilding and navigation).

All these words are used in their discipline and concentrate the quintessence of any science. These are the most acceptable types of language expression that are convenient for scientific language.

Pleonasm of terms

Terms always carry a maximum of information, which is why they are indispensable, formulating the speaker's thought in an extremely capacious and accurate way! However, excessive use or pleonasm of terminological vocabulary often destroys even the most interesting scientific work.

The degree of terminology of different scientific articles cannot be the same. Somewhere the terminological vocabulary of the Russian language is very frequent, but somewhere it will only have two or three examples. It depends on the style of presentation, as well as on who the text will be addressed to.

How many special words are allowed?

Sometimes the text of a scientific work is so overloaded with terms that it is not only difficult to read it, but almost impossible even for specialists. Therefore, when writing scientific papers, it is better to adhere to the rule of the golden mean: the work should contain no more than 30-40% of terminological and professional vocabulary. It is then that it will be popular among a wide range of readers, even those who are very far from the scientific fact described in it.

In addition, it is important to ensure that the terms used in scientific work are sufficiently known to a large circle of people, otherwise they will need to be explained all the time, and such work will turn into a continuous “scientific” explanation.

Expansion of terms

And, of course, it is important not to create one continuous pleonasm of scientific terminology from ordinary speech, as it will be difficult for listeners to understand you, and the whole speech will seem boring and even meaningless. This is connected with the frequent expansion of terms - the transition from scientific vocabulary to everyday speech.

Like borrowings, terms flood our usual everyday dialogue with new sentences and literally the dominance of "scientific". It sounds very difficult and strange if suddenly teenagers try to artificially saturate their dialogue with similar words, replacing ordinary vocabulary with special words. Terms are needed not for replacement, but for designation and specificity. They should be used only when special words are indispensable.

By thoughtlessly using such words, we run the risk of making our speech poor, and the language too incomprehensible. Such overload is often encountered by first-year students, starting to go to lectures.

Lectures by professors who are too carried away and begin to literally retell the text of the textbook, as a rule, are incomprehensible, boring and have no result. Lectures by enthusiasts of their subject, who have made many discoveries in its field, are, as a rule, very simple and written in almost colloquial language. These scientists talk about something important, but so simply that any student can understand them, and not only understand, but also apply the acquired knowledge in practice.

Special vocabulary: professionalisms

Professionals include all words and expressions that are associated with a particular production or activity. These word forms, as well as many terms, have not become common. Professionalisms function as semi-official words that do not have a scientific character, unlike terms.

In any profession, such verbal forms are known only to narrow specialists, as they denote various stages of production, unofficial names of tools, as well as manufactured products or raw materials. In addition, professionalisms, like terminological vocabulary, are found in sports, medicine, in the speech of hunters, fishermen, divers, etc.

For example:

In this book, clumsy ending- Publishing expertise. Indicates a graphic decoration at the end of a book. In ordinary speech, the ending is simply the end of the work.
Spent mawashi in his head - sports professionalism. In karate, it means a kick to the head.
Yacht darted with a strong gust of wind - sports professionalism from the field of yachting. It means she showed her keel - the bottom of the yacht, that is, she turned over.
Pushkinists arranged a literary evening - philological professionalism. Means people who have devoted their scientific activity to the work of A. S. Pushkin.

Professional vocabulary, unlike terminological, can have an expressive coloring and go into the category of jargon. And also to become a common word, such as, for example, the word “turnover”, which was previously a professionalism.

Thus, terminological and professional vocabulary is a special layer of the Russian language, which includes words and expressions related to a certain area of use. It can be associated with science, as in the case of terms, and with activities, production or hobbies, as in professionalism.

socially restricted use terminological and professional vocabulary used by people of the same profession working in the same field of science and technology. Terms and professionalisms are given in explanatory dictionaries marked "special", sometimes the scope of use of a particular term is indicated: physical, medical, mathematical, astronomer. etc.

Each field of knowledge has its own terminological system.

Terms- words or phrases naming special concepts of any sphere of production, science, art. Each term is necessarily based on the definition (definition) of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent an accurate and at the same time concise description of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of knowledge operates with its own terms, which are the essence of the terminological system of this science.

As part of the terminological vocabulary, several "layers" can be distinguished, differing in the scope of use, the features of the designated object.

1. First of all, this general scientific terms that are used in various fields of knowledge and belong to the scientific style of speech as a whole: experiment, adequate, equivalent, predict, hypothetical, progress, reaction etc. These terms form a common conceptual fund of various sciences and have the highest frequency of use.

2. Differ and special terms that are assigned to certain scientific disciplines, branches of production and technology; For example, in linguistics: subject, predicate, adjective, pronoun; in medicine: heart attack, myoma, periodontitis, cardiology etc. In these terminologies the quintessence of each science is concentrated. According to S. Bally, such terms "are the ideal types of linguistic expression, to which the scientific language inevitably strives"1.

Modern society requires such a form of description of the data obtained, which would make it possible to make the greatest discoveries of mankind the property of everyone. However, the language of monographic studies is often so overloaded with terms that it becomes inaccessible even to a specialist. Therefore, it is important that the terminology used be sufficiently mastered by science, and newly introduced terms must be explained.

A peculiar sign of our time has become the spread of terms outside of scientific works. This gives grounds to talk about the general terminology of modern speech. So, many words that have terminological meaning are widely used without any restrictions: tractor, radio, television, oxygen. Another group consists of words that have a dual nature: they can function both as terms and as commonly used words. In the first case, these lexical units are characterized by special shades of meaning, giving them special accuracy and unambiguity. Yes, the word mountain, meaning in wide use - "a significant hill rising above the surrounding area" and having a number of figurative meanings, does not contain specific measurements of height in its interpretation.

In geographical terminology, where the distinction between the terms "mountain" and "hill" is essential, a clarification is given - "a hill over 200 m in height." Thus, the use of such words outside the scientific style is associated with their partial determinology.

To professional vocabulary includes words and expressions used in various areas of production, techniques that, however, have not become common. Unlike terms - official scientific names of special concepts, professionalisms function mainly in oral speech as "semi-official" words that do not have a strictly scientific character. Professionalisms serve to designate various production processes, production tools, raw materials, manufactured products, etc. For example, professionalisms are used in the speech of printers: ending- "graphic decoration at the end of the book", tendril- "ending with a thickening in the middle", tail- "bottom outer margin of the page", as well as "bottom edge of the book", opposite head books.

Professionalisms can be grouped according to the sphere of their use: in the speech of athletes, miners, doctors, hunters, fishermen, etc. technicisms- highly specialized names used in the field of technology.

Professionalisms, in contrast to their commonly used equivalents, serve to distinguish between close concepts used in a certain type of human activity. Due to this, professional vocabulary is indispensable for concise and accurate expression of thoughts in special texts intended for a trained reader. However, the informative value of narrow professional names is lost if a non-specialist encounters them. Therefore, professionalism is appropriate, say, in high-circulation industry newspapers and is not justified in publications oriented to a wide readership.

Separate professionalisms, often with a reduced stylistic sound, become part of the commonly used vocabulary: give out on the mountain, assault, turnover. In fiction, professionalisms are used by writers with a specific stylistic goal: as a characterological tool in describing the lives of people associated with any kind of production.

Professional slang vocabulary has a reduced expressive coloring and is used only in the oral speech of people of the same profession. For example, engineers jokingly call a self-recording device snitch, in the speech of pilots there are words mischief, mischief, meaning "undershoot and overshoot of the landing mark", as well as bubble, sausage- "probe balloon", etc. As a rule, professional jargon words have neutral, non-verbal synonyms that have an exact terminological meaning.

Professional slang vocabulary is not listed in special dictionaries, in contrast to professionalisms, which are given with explanations and are often enclosed in quotation marks (for their graphic distinction from terms): "clogged" font - "font that has been in typed galleys or stripes for a long time" ; "foreign" font - "font letters of a different style or size, mistakenly included in the typed text or heading."

1 Bally Sh. French style. M., 1961 S. 144

Special or professional-terminological vocabulary includes two groups: terms and professionalisms.

Words and phrases used in a certain branch of science, technology, and art constitute terminological and professional vocabulary [Lekant 2007].

The most significant group in the special vocabulary are scientific and technical terms that form a variety of terminological systems. Terms are the names of concepts in a certain field of science, technology, art. Terminological vocabulary includes words or phrases used to logically accurately define special concepts, establish the content of concepts, their distinctive features. The emergence and functioning of such vocabulary is due to the development of science, technology, art; it has a pronounced social character and is under the control of society.
Terminology is one of the most mobile, rapidly replenishing parts of the national vocabulary. Modern researchers note that the accelerating pace of the scientific and technological revolution over the past decades has led and is increasingly leading to an avalanche-like growth of information in all areas of knowledge, production and scientific activities.

A twofold process is taking place: a sharp increase in special terms accessible only to specialists, the number of which in each highly developed language grows extremely and numbers in the millions, many times exceeding the generally accepted vocabulary, and at the same time, an intensive penetration of special terminology into the general literary language. Special terminology becomes the main source of replenishment of the vocabulary of the literary language.
The semantic essence of the term and its specificity lie in the nature of its meaning, which is established in the process of conscious, deliberate agreement and within the given terminological system is direct, nominative, syntactically or constructively unconditioned by anything. In different systems, the meanings of terms can be expressed differently - using words and phrases, formulas or other sign systems. Terms are, to a certain extent, an artificial lexical-semantic formation, their semantic essence must necessarily reflect the amount of information, the amount of scientific knowledge that

help to reveal the content of the concept.
Unlike non-terms, words of unlimited use, many of which are ambiguous, terms within the same science, as a rule, must be unambiguous. They are characterized by a clearly limited, predominantly motivated specialization and absolute semantic accuracy. However, the concept of uniqueness, usually used as an absolute differential feature of terms, is somewhat relative. This is most likely a requirement for ideal terminological systems. In real-life terminologies, there are many terms that are characterized by so-called categorical ambiguity. For example, one of the types of terms that have it are nouns with the meaning of an action and its result : winding- 1) distribution of turns of something; 2) a cone-shaped or cylindrical shape of the product, acquired as a result of winding (compare also the ambiguity of a number of other terms of textile production: overlapping, processing, and others).
The ambiguity of terms, as well as their synonymy (linguistics - linguistics), as well as homonymy (reaction - chemical and socio-political) and antonymy (polysemy - monosemy) are usually noted among the shortcomings of many modern terminologies. In this case, apparently, the general lexico-semantic patterns of the functioning and development of the language also apply to terminological systems. Therefore, speaking of unambiguity, ambiguity, homonymy, synonymy of terms, it is necessary to take into account the known real-life relativity of this feature.
Among the word-forming distinguishing features of terms is the regularity (uniformity) of their formation within a certain terminological system. The formation of terms occurs constantly in different ways. Along with the process of creating new names, terminology of words already existing in the language is observed, that is, their rethinking (transfer of the name), as a result of which secondary, in this case, specially terminological nominations arise. For the formation of terms are used:

Metaphorical transfer of the name: the loop(sport.), pelvis(honey.), shepherd's bag(bot.), - similarity of form; pillow(geol.), sail(arch.), golden ratio(sq.) - similarity of function;

The actual lexical method, that is, the formation of words and phrases based on native Russian words (charging, the mother substance is physical);

Lexical and derivational, that is, the creation of terms using existing in the Russian language or borrowed word-forming elements, morphemes, according to the models available in the language.

The most productive among them are addition and affixation. So, different types of addition of bases and words are used. Addition of complete bases: cotyledon, oxygenated etc; addition of truncated stems (complex abbreviated words): hyperbaric apparatus, space navigation other; the use of foreign language elements of air-, auto-, aero-, bio-, video-, zoo-, geo-, hydro-, hyper-, inter-, iso-, macro-, micro-, para-, pan-, radio- , tele-, ultra-, electro- and others: aeronomy, biophysics, hydrometeorological service, zooplankton and other; abbreviation: AMS(automatic interplanetary station), MN(magnetic saturation), computer(electronic computer); mixed method, that is, the combination of complex partially dissected names and different words educational elements: hydro-sandblasting perforation.

Terms formed by addition can be indivisible lexicalized units ( cosmology, biocybernetics and so on), but they can also be units of incomplete lexicalization, that is, those that are not one indivisible lexeme ( vector function, alpha particle), as evidenced by the hyphenated spelling of words.

Very productive and different types of term formation by the method of affixation (prefixed, prefixed - suffixal): swirl, ground, reduction and etc.

No less productive is the lexico-semantic way of replenishing the terminological vocabulary; that is, the creation of a term in the process of scientific (or technical) rethinking of well-known words. This process goes in two ways:

1) through a complete rethinking existing word and the subsequent separation of the newly created unit from the source word. Thus arose, for example, one of the terminological meanings of the word elementary in combination elementary particle;

2) by using the transfer of the name, taking into account the emerging associations. So the terminological meaning of the word snow arose - special kind Images. This method allows in some cases to create terminological names with elements of expression in semantics, for example: worm image, dead time, alien atom. [Special vocabulary, its functions 2012]
Foreign borrowings play a significant role in replenishing terminological systems. For a long time, many international scientific, technical, economic, cultural, historical, socio-political terms of Latin and Greek origin have been known in the language, for example: agglutination, binary; humanity, dictatorship, literature and other words from the Latin language; agronomy, dynamics, grammar, space, democracy and others from Greek. Many terms came from other languages.

The use of borrowed terminological vocabulary is primarily associated with the specifics of the field of activity - in scientific and technical literature, in professional communication. However, for modern language characteristic is the use of terms in everyday, everyday speech [Valgina 2012].

The spread of scientific and technical terminology, its intensive penetration into various spheres of life leads to the fact that in the language, along with the process of terminology of commonly used words, there is also a reverse process - mastering the literary language of terms, their determinology . Frequent use of philosophical, art history, literary criticism, medical, physical, chemical, industrial and technical and many other terms

and terminological phrases made them common lexical units, for example: argument, concept, consciousness; drama, concert, romance, contact, tension, resonance; analysis, synthesis, and others as well fulcrum, freezing point, boiling point, center of gravity and
etc. Many of these words and phrases in general literary use have a different, often metaphorical, meaning: catalyst- a (special) substance that speeds up, slows down or changes the course of a chemical reaction, and catalyst- (portable) stimulant of something.

Determinologization of professional and technical names is facilitated by oral speech, systematic broadcasts on relevant topics on radio and television. The inclusion of special words in this case is due to the subject and genre of publications (or oral transmissions), that is, caused by a certain situation. The dissemination and then complete or partial (which is more often observed) determinologization of professional terminological names is also helped by works of art in which these words are used for a specific stylistic or characterological purpose; the desire to update the generally accepted tone of the narration, focusing on unusual word usage for a work of art.
However, excessive saturation of artistic and journalistic works with scientific and technical terminology reduces the strength of their impact and artistic value.

Through funds mass media, as well as due to the active introduction of technology into everyday life modern man, special concepts and terms become active components of the everyday vocabulary. Moreover, similar lexical introductions into the colloquial vocabulary are observed. Of course, such vocabulary is often transformed, sounds distorted, altered: “She x-ray works. In the apartment limit lives.

Professional vocabulary includes words and expressions that are characteristic of the speech of people in one field of activity and are everyday and expressive-figurative names in this occupation.

Production" words and expressions are created "for themselves", as duplicates or synonyms of the terms of the chosen field of activity. Often, professionalisms replace the missing members of the terminological system. For example, in technology: burner nose, shaft neck, spike body. These semi-official names give liveliness and looseness to speech, have expressive and emotional connotations.

hallmarks professionalisms are the oral nature of the use, figurative meaning, the intersection of the semantics of names different types labor activity, lack of systematic organization in the nominative ranks.

Professionalisms are characterized by significant differentiation in the designation of special concepts, tools and means of production, the names of objects, actions, and so on. For example, in meteorology, in accordance with the distinguishable types of snowflakes, there are several of their names: an asterisk, a needle, a hedgehog, a plate, a fluff, a column. In hunting speech, there are many names for a fox (according to color and breed), for example, simple, red, forest, moth, red-brown, cross, black-brown, black, white, karsun, karaganka, pompous fox and so on. In the speech of carpenters and joiners, there are many varieties of instrument, for the name of which in the literary language there is the word planer: shavings, hunchback, road builder, bear, and so on. [Special vocabulary, its functions 2012]

Professionalisms are formed metaphorically: cracker, bull (technical), flies (marine), plates (geographical); lexical and derivational: shoulders (sewing), filly (zool.); collocation: gearbox, zone of silence, white noise (tech.), invertebrate column, acute abdomen, cornerstone glaucoma, spinal cord (med.). [Lecant 2007]

In the literary language, narrow professional words usually do not receive wide distribution, that is, the scope of their use remains limited. Special and professional vocabulary is used in fiction and memoirs, in the speech of characters when describing professional activity etc. [Special vocabulary, its functions 2012]

Thus, special terminology becomes one of the sources for replenishing the vocabulary of the literary language.

The use of terminological and professional vocabulary used by people of the same profession working in the same field of science and technology is socially limited. Terms and professionalisms are given in explanatory dictionaries marked "special", sometimes the sphere of use of a particular term is indicated: physical, medical, mathematical, astronomer. etc. Each field of knowledge has its own terminological system.

Terms - words or phrases that name special concepts of any special field of science, technology, art. Each term is necessarily based on the definition (definition) of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent an accurate and at the same time concise description of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of knowledge operates with its own terms, which are the essence of the terminological system of this science (18, p. 90).

For the formation of terms are used:

metaphorical transfer of the name: loop (sport.), pelvis (med.), shepherd's purse (bot.) - similarity of shape; pillow (geol.), sail (arch.), golden ratio (claim) - similarity of function;

lexical-word-building method: lunar rover, smoke extractor- addition of bases; bioengineering, electrical recording, ultraacoustics-- use of borrowed bio-, electro-, ultra-, etc. elements;

borrowing words: laser, algorithm, scanner(12, p.51-52).

Questions about what the term is as a sign and unit of language, what are its functions, what place does it occupy in lexical system, were considered by many domestic linguists (V.V. Vinogradov, G.O. Vinokur, D.S. Lotte, A.A. Reformatsky, O.S. Akhmanova, F.P. Filin, V.M. Leichik, V. P. Danilenko, B. N. Golovin, R. Y. Kobrin, A. S. Gerd, A. I. Moiseev, V. A. Tatarinov, N. B. Gvishiani, P. N. Denisov, L. A. Kapanadze, T. L. Kandelaki, A. V. Superanskaya, S. V. Grinev, G. P. Nemets, I. M. Kobozeva, T. H. Kade, L. Yu. Buyanova, S. G. Kazarina and others. ).

Their works studied the linguistic and conceptual systemic nature of terms, the genetic composition of special vocabulary, the paradigmatic and hierarchical organization of taxa, their relationship in the semantic volume of terms; term-formation paradigmatics, hierarchical and functional relations between terminating concepts, etc. (8, p. 112).

In the linguistic literature there is no consensus on terminological synonymy. Although, of course, the presence of synonyms is not a desirable phenomenon in terminology, the fact of its existence is recognized by many scientists (V.A. Grechko, B.N. Golovin, S.V. Grinev, V.P. Danilenko, R.Yu. Kobrin) . Other linguists-researchers categorically reject synonymy in the field of modern terminology, in professional vocabulary (V.K. Favorit, A.P. Evgenyeva, A.B. Shapiro, E.N. Tolikina). The main basis for creating terminological synonymy is borrowings from Greek and Latin and their equivalents of Russian origin. Many researchers deny the existence of complete synonyms. D.S. Lotte believes that in terminology one should distinguish between "absolute" and "relative" synonyms, I.V. Rakhmanov distinguishes semantically equivalent and unequal synonyms. They deny the existence of "absolute" synonyms for E.M. Galkina-Fedoruk, L.A. Bulakhovsky, R.A. Budagov and others. The problem of studying terms as elements of the language picture of the world has not been fully resolved.

As part of the terminological vocabulary, several "layers" can be distinguished, differing in the scope of use, the features of the designated object.

1. First of all, these are general scientific terms that are used in various fields of knowledge and belong to the scientific style of speech as a whole: experiment, adequate, equivalent, predict, hypothetical, progress, reaction, etc. These terms form a common conceptual fund of various sciences and have the highest frequency of use.

2. There are also special terms that are assigned to certain scientific disciplines, branches of production and technology; for example in linguistics: subject, predicate, adjective, pronoun; in medicine: infarction, myoma, periodontitis, cardiology, etc. These terminologies concentrate the quintessence of each science (18, p. 91).

A peculiar sign of our time has become the spread of terms outside of scientific works. This gives grounds to talk about the general terminology of modern speech. So, quite a few words that have terminological meaning have been widely used without any restrictions: tractor, radio, television, oxygen. Another group consists of words that have a dual nature: they can function both as terms and as commonly used words. In the first case, these lexical units are characterized by special shades of meaning, giving them special accuracy and unambiguity. So, the word mountain, which means in wide use - "a significant hill rising above the surrounding area" and having a number of figurative meanings, does not contain specific measurements of height in its interpretation.

In the Russian language, along with common vocabulary, there are words and expressions used by groups of people united by the nature of their activity, i.e. by profession. These are professionalisms.
Professionalisms are characterized by greater differentiation in the designation of tools and means of production, in the names of specific objects, actions, persons, etc. They are distributed mainly in the colloquial speech of people of a particular profession, sometimes being a kind of unofficial synonyms for special names. Often they are reflected in dictionaries, but always marked “professional”. In the texts of newspapers and magazines, as well as in works of art, they usually perform a nominative function, and also serve as a pictorial means of expression.
So, in the professional speech of actors, the complex abbreviated name glavrezh is used; in the colloquial speech of builders and repairmen, the professional name of capital repairs is used; the attendants of computer centers are called machinists and EVEM workers; on fishing boats, workers who gut fish (usually by hand) are called skerries, etc.
According to the method of education, we can distinguish:
1) actually lexical professionalisms, which arise as new, special names. For example, in this way arose in the speech of professional fishermen the above word shkershchik from the verb shkerit - “gut the fish”; in the speech of carpenters and joiners, the names of various types of planer: kalevka, zenzubel, tongue and groove, etc .;
2) lexical-semantic professionalisms that arise in the process of developing a new meaning of a word and its rethinking. This is how, for example, the professional meanings of words in the speech of printers arose: Christmas trees or paws - a kind of quotation marks; heading - a common heading for several publications, corral - a spare, additional set that was not included in the next issue; in the speech of hunters, the professional names of animal tails are distinguished: for a deer - kuiruk, burdock, for a wolf - a log, for a fox - a pipe, for a beaver - a shovel, for a squirrel - fur, for a hare - a flower, a bunch, burdock, etc .;
3) lexical and derivational professionalisms, which include words like a spare wheel - a spare mechanism, part of something; glavrezh - the main director, etc., in which either a suffix is used, or a way of adding words, etc.
Professionalisms usually do not receive wide distribution in the literary language; their scope remains limited.
Terminological vocabulary includes words or phrases used to logically accurately define special concepts or objects in some area of science, technology, agriculture, art, etc. Unlike commonly used words, which can be ambiguous, terms within a particular science, as a rule, are unambiguous. They are characterized by a clearly limited, motivated specialization of meaning.
The development of science and technology, the emergence of new branches of science is always accompanied by the abundant appearance of new terms. Therefore, terminology is one of the most mobile, fast-growing and rapidly changing parts of the national vocabulary (cf. just some names of new sciences and industries: automation, allergology, aeronomy, biocybernetics, bionics, hydroponics, holography, cardiac surgery, cosmobiology and many other sciences related to space exploration, plasma chemistry, speleology, ergonomics, etc.).
Ways of forming terms are different. For example, there is a terminology of words existing in the language, i.e. scientific rethinking of the well-known lexical meaning. This process goes in two ways: 1) by abandoning the generally accepted lexical meaning and giving the word a strict, precise name, for example: a signal in information theory “changing physical quantity, displaying messages"; 2) through the full or partial use of those features that serve as the basis for the lexical meaning of the word in popular use, i.e. name by similarity, adjacency, etc., for example: a hole is a defective electron in nuclear physics; drapri - a kind of form of aurora; neck - the intermediate part of the machine shaft, etc. Note that the expressive-emotional meanings inherent in words with diminutive suffixes, as a rule, disappear during terminology. Wed also: tail (for tools, fixtures), foot (part of the machine frame; part of the instruments), etc.
For the formation of terms, the word composition is widely used: nuclear-powered ship, smoke catcher, crank, current drive; affixing method: casting, cladding, constellation, melting, heater; the addition of foreign language elements: air, auto, bio, etc. The method of terminology of phrases is widely used: elementary particles, primary radiation, cosmic rays, optical density, space medicine, etc.
Foreign borrowings play an important role in terminological systems. For a long time, many Dutch, English nautical terms have been known; Italian and French musical, art history, literary terms; Latin and Greek terms are found in all sciences. Many of these terms are international (see § 10).
The spread of scientific and technical terminology, its penetration into various spheres of life leads to the fact that in the language, along with the process of terminology of commonly used words, there is also a reverse process - mastering the literary language of terms, i.e. their determinology. For example, the frequent use of philosophical, art criticism, literary criticism, physical, chemical, medical, industrial and many other terms made them common words, for example: abstraction, argument, dialectics, materialism, thinking, concept, consciousness; concert, plot, style; amplitude, accumulator, contact, contour, reaction, resonance; analysis, vitamin deficiency, diagnosis, immunity, x-ray; capron, harvester, conveyor, motor; incandescence, soldering, recoil, filtering, etc. Often found in the context of commonly used words, the terms are metaphorized and lose their special purpose, for example: the anatomy of love, the geography of a feat, sclerosis of conscience, inflation of words.
Determinologized words are widely used in different styles of speech: colloquial, bookish (in journalism, works of art, etc.). Along with them, professionalisms and terms are often used. However, the excessive saturation of artistic, journalistic works with scientific and technical terminology reduces their value and was condemned back in the late 20s and early 30s by A.M. Gorky, who wrote: “... No need to abuse shop terminology, or you should explain the terms. This must be done without fail, because it gives the book a wider distribution, makes it easier to assimilate everything that is said in it.

More on the topic 13. Professional and terminological vocabulary:

1.19. Special vocabulary (professional and terminological)
§one. The use of dialect, professional and terminological vocabulary in speech
1.5.4. Unique suffixes of nouns formed according to the model of borrowed words, replenishing the terminological vocabulary

Terminology is the most representative part of the special vocabulary, in which the specificity of the vocabulary of people belonging to the same professional group is most clearly manifested. In the field of each individual profession associated with a particular branch of social production or science, there is always a larger or smaller supply of vocabulary related to objects or concepts that are essential to the industry.

The role of terminological vocabulary in the modern Russian language is increasing. So, in the dictionary of V.I. Dal placed only 200 sports terms, in the dictionary of D.N. Ushakov - 800, in the Small Academic Dictionary - 1400, and in total there are more than 25 thousand of them in modern sports terminology.

Terminological vocabulary is opposed to the commonly used, firstly, by its meaningful connection with the objects of a special area, and secondly, by the fact that within the framework of special communication it has a very high frequency.

In the language of science, three layers of vocabulary are distinguished: 1) non-terminological - words with an abstract meaning - essence, attribute, object; 2) general scientific - speed, frequency; 3) actually terminological - special names in the field of professional communication - peritonitis, tectonic, diffraction.

Terms constitute the most regulated part of the vocabulary of the language, in a certain sense - the most artificial, consciously regulated, created and provided for regulation. Consider the signs of terminology.

The question of the motivation of the term deserves special consideration. As you know, a motivational sign (even if it exists) does not play significant role in the process of functioning of commonly used words. And what about the terms? Is the quality of motivation necessary, is it useful for terms that are fundamentally oriented primarily to communication with non-linguistic objects? It is difficult to give a definite answer here. On the one hand, the meaning of a term should be determined by the scientific definition and not depend on the meaning of the words that are used to form it. This is fully met by foreign terms, conditional terms such as Newton's binomial, Kohr's assumption, black box(in cybernetics) or noise(in information theory), as well as terms like ACS, LIK, Uranium-235. On the other hand, in any terminological system we encounter derivative words that are connected by word-formation relations, for example: syllable - syllabic principle, sign - sign, variant - invariant. The only thing that is undesirable is the desire to exaggerate the meaning of the motivational feature in determining the content of the term. For example, the term atom derived from the Greek word "indivisible", this feature is absolutely incompatible with the modern understanding of the structure of the atom. Another example: it would be illegal within the framework of modern case theory to define the term case, associate it with the meaning of the verb fall, although there is an etymological connection.

Despite the foregoing, the terms are mostly subject to the laws of the Russian language. So, the ways of forming new terms are the same as for ordinary words, for example: computer memory(semantic way), Control block(compound name), sanding(suffix way), hydropower(phrasing). At the same time, within the framework of these general methods, features characteristic of terminology appear.

In terminology, more often than in ordinary words, one can indicate the person who created (or proposed) this or that term. For example, the term biosphere introduced by V.I. Vernadsky, 104th element Periodic system was named kurchatov G.A. Flerov, term spaceship was proposed by S.P. . Korolev. It is in the terminology that the percentage of foreign words (especially international ones) far exceeds the corresponding indicators in the field of common vocabulary. It is in it that the standard international elements of composition, genetically related, are used with maximum activity.

1. The meanings of terms are specific in the sense that they express scientific concepts that require a fairly precise definition in accordance with the level of development of a particular branch of knowledge.

2. Terms always function as members of certain term systems. Within the terminology of a particular industry, they are naturally related to each other, and the content of one term is formed and comprehended against the background of others. Semantic relationships in the terminology are identified and emphasized by the systematic design. So, the same suffixes are used in the names of language units (phoneme, lexeme, morpheme), in the titles of sections of linguistics (as in other sciences), a model of compound words is used with the element -logy (morphology, phonology, lexicology, phraseology, morphonology, accentology etc.). The names of atomic accelerators are created according to the model with the component -tron (bevatron, betatron, kosmotron, synchrotron, synchrophasotron, synchrocyclotron, phasotron, cyclotron); the names of the newly discovered components of a living cell are decorated with the element - soma (chromosome, ribosome, informasome, centrosome). The models by which the terms of one series are formed can be specialized within the framework of individual sciences. So, in geology with the help of the suffix -it names of minerals are formed from proper names (altaite, baikalite, voluevit, sparrowite, lomonosovite etc.), and in medical terminology, the homonymous suffix is used to form the names of inflammatory diseases from the names of the organs of the human body (colitis, nephritis, gastritis, meningitis, cholecystitis, bronchitis, pleurisy etc.). It is in the use of certain models that the regularity of terms, the possibility of their artificial and conscious formation are clearly manifested.

3. The ideal requirement that can be made to the term is the requirement of unambiguity and the absence of synonyms. In different term systems, the same lexemes can be used to denote different concepts. For example, the word reduction as a chemical term it means "liberation from oxidation", in biology it means "simplification of the body associated with the loss of function", in technology - "lowering the force of pressure or tension", in linguistics - "weakening the sonority of vowels", in medicine - "insertion a piece of bone instead of a damaged one", in history - the seizure of indigenous lands from feudal lords in Sweden in the second half of the 18th century. From a lexicological point of view, all these meanings can be considered as polysemy, but since each of these terms is included in its own terminological system and, functioning in it, does not correspond in any way with another that outwardly coincides with it, this phenomenon is more correctly defined as intersystem terminological homonymy.

Task 28. Complete test tasks(based on the content of the text from task 24)

1. Terminological vocabulary is used:

a) in professional communication;

b) in scientific and educational and scientific activities.

2. Words system, element, function, factor, method refer to:

a) general scientific vocabulary;

b) terminological vocabulary.

3. Words terminal, osteochondrosis, flash memory, quantum generator refer to:

a) general scientific vocabulary;

b) terminological vocabulary.

4. Specify the method of formation of the following terms: immunogenetics, neurobionics, sitall (silicate and metal):

a) semantic way;

b) vocabulary.

5. Specify the method of formation of the following terms: Darwinism, drilling, ionization:

a) suffix;

b) semantic.

6. Specify the method of formation of the following terms: laser beam, solar generator, phraseological unit:

a) vocabulary

b) compound name.

7. Define a series where all units are included in one term system:

a) bronchitis, cystitis, pleurisy, altaitis, arthritis;

b) phoneme, morpheme, lexeme, phraseme;

c) cardiography, tomography, radiography, phraseography.

Task 29. Based on the content of the text (task 24) and using these grammatical constructions, make a linguistic description of the concept term.

1. In the language of science, ...

2. Terminology is...

3. Terminological vocabulary differs from ...

4. Terms make up...

5. New terminological lexical units are formed ...

6. A set of terms of a certain discipline with branched semantic and conceptual links between elements forms ...

7. Semantic relationships in the term system are emphasized ...

8. The term has...

Task 30. Write a description of the scientific discipline (specialty) you are studying(definition of which branch of science it belongs to, subject of study, history of development, well-known scientific theories, scientific schools, division into areas, basic terms).

Each field of knowledge has its own terminological system. For this study, the area of study of terminological vocabulary is the technical sphere of human activity.

Terms - words or phrases that name special concepts of any sphere of production, science, art. Each term is necessarily based on the definition (definition) of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent an accurate and at the same time concise description of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of knowledge operates with its own terms, which are the essence of the terminological system of this science.

As part of the terminological vocabulary, several “layers” can be distinguished, differing in the scope of use, features of the designated object.

First of all, general scientific terms are distinguished that are used in various fields of knowledge and belong to the scientific style of speech as a whole: experiment, adequate, equivalent, predict, hypothetical, progress, reaction etc. These terms form a common conceptual fund of various sciences and have the highest frequency of use.

There are also special terms that are assigned to certain scientific disciplines, branches of production and technology; For example in computer science: program code, programming language, wikiness('Existence electronic document on the Internet, confirmed by the presence of a certain number of links’); in the technical industry: display, TFT, LCD, color matrix, etc. These terms are actively used in the media. For example: American scientists have developed a newTFT display , which today has a record contrast ratio of 10,000:1.(AiF, 2007, No. 46); « color matrix LCD ‑TVs are particularly clear”(AiF, 2009, No. 6); « TFT TVs have been purchased in the last 2 years by about 6,000 people”(Volga, 2008, No. 34).

In these terminologies, the quintessence of each science is concentrated. According to S. Bally, such terms “are the ideal types of linguistic expression, to which the scientific language inevitably strives” (Bally S., 1961, p. 144).

A peculiar sign of our time has become the spread of terms outside of scientific works. This gives grounds to talk about the general terminology of modern speech. So, many words that have terminological meaning are widely used without any restrictions: blog, internet, mobile phone, monitor, microwave oven. For example: « Mobile phones Today almost every Russian has one. What is the reason for such popularity of mobile communications in Russia? The answer is simple"(AiF, 2007, No. 11); “In August 2008, a new microwave Samsung-4573F"(AiF, 2006, No. 4).

Another group consists of words that have a dual nature: they can function both as terms and as commonly used words. In the first case, these lexical units are characterized by special shades of meaning, giving them special accuracy and unambiguity.

Terminology is one of the most mobile, rapidly replenishing parts of the national vocabulary. Modern researchers note that the accelerating pace of the scientific and technological revolution over the past decades has led and is increasingly leading to an avalanche-like growth of information in all areas of knowledge, production and scientific activities.

In different systems, the meanings of terms can be expressed differently - using words and phrases, formulas or other sign systems. Terms are, to a certain extent, an artificial lexico-semantic formation, their semantic essence must necessarily reflect the amount of information, the amount of scientific knowledge that helps to reveal the content of the concept.

Unlike non-terms, words of unlimited use, many of which are ambiguous, terms within the same science, as a rule, must be unambiguous. They are characterized by a clearly limited, predominantly motivated specialization and absolute semantic accuracy. However, the concept of uniqueness, usually used as an absolute differential feature of terms, is somewhat relative. This is most likely a requirement for ideal terminological systems.

In real-life terminologies, there are many terms that are characterized by so-called categorical ambiguity. For example, one of the types of terms that have it are nouns with the meaning of an action and its result: winding(‘the distribution of coils of something’, ‘the cone-shaped or cylindrical shape of the product acquired as a result of winding’).

Thus, the terminological vocabulary reflects a significant part of speech activity in the designation of the technical sphere of human activity. Let us consider the professional vocabulary of the technosphere, which, along with terminology, is part of the special vocabulary of the Russian language.

Each field of knowledge has its own terminological system.

As part of the terminological vocabulary, several "layers" can be distinguished, differing in the scope of use, the features of the designated object.

Terms- words or phrases naming special concepts of any sphere of production, science, art. Each term is necessarily based on the definition of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent an accurate and at the same time concise description of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of knowledge operates with its own terms, which are the essence of the terminological system of this science.

1. First of all, these are general scientific terms that are used in various fields of knowledge and belong to the scientific style of speech in general: experiment, adequate, equivalent, predict. These terms form a common conceptual fund of various sciences and have the highest frequency of use.

2. There are also special terms that are assigned to certain scientific disciplines, branches of production and technology; for example, in linguistics: subject, predicate, adjective; in medicine: heart attack, cardiology, etc.

Terminological vocabulary, like no other, is informative. Therefore, in the language of science, terms are indispensable: they allow you to briefly and extremely accurately formulate an idea. However, the degree of terminology of scientific works is not the same. The frequency of the use of terms depends on the nature of the presentation, the addressing of the text.

Peculiar a sign of our time has become the spread of terms outside of scientific works. This gives grounds to talk about the general terminology of modern speech. So, quite a few words that have terminological meaning have been widely used without any restrictions: tractor, radio, television, oxygen. Another group consists of words that have a dual nature: they can function both as terms and as commonly used words. In the first case, these lexical units are characterized by special shades of meaning, giving them special accuracy and unambiguity. So, the word mountain, which means in wide use - "a significant hill rising above the surrounding area" and having a number of figurative meanings, does not contain specific measurements of height in its interpretation.

Terminological dictionaries- dictionaries containing the terminology of one or more special areas of knowledge or activity, that is, reflecting the achievements of terminological lexicography (terminography) - one of the sections of general lexicography.

Ticket 12. Dialect, jargon, colloquial vocabulary: typology, the principle of expediency of use. Dictionary of dialect vocabulary.

1. dialect group- a group of words, the scope of which is limited by one or another territorial fixation. At their core, these are the dialects of the peasant population, which still retain separate phonetic, morphological, syntactic and lexical-semantic features. This makes it possible to single out phonetic dialectisms (w[o]na instead of wife, p[i]snya, m[i]hundred instead of song, place), morphological dialectisms (for example, I saw with my own eyes[s]) and lexical dialectisms , among which are lexical and lexico-semantic.

Lexical dialectisms are words that coincide with general literary ones in meaning, but differ in their sound complex. They call the same concepts as the words of the literary language that are identical to them, that is, they are synonyms. So, lexical dialectisms are the words: Basque (Northern) - beautiful, Veksha (Northern) - squirrel, rowing (Southern) - disdain, etc.

Lexico-semantic dialectisms are words that coincide in spelling and pronunciation with literary ones, but differ from them in their meaning. They are homonyms in relation to literary words. For example, peppy (Southern, and Ryazan) - smart, beautifully dressed and peppy (lit.) - full of strength, healthy, energetic.

In their bulk, dialect words are not included in the general literary language. But through colloquial speech, dialectisms penetrate into the literary language. They are also used by Russian writers of the 20th century (M.A. Sholokhov, V. Rasputin, V.M. Shukshin, etc.).

For the modern literary language, dialectisms provide less and less figurative means even when people from the peasant environment are depicted, since the growth of the culture of the entire population, as well as the influence of the media, contributes to the fact that the convergence of local dialects with the literary language is more and more active.

Dialect dictionaries are a kind of explanatory dictionaries that describe the vocabulary of one dialect or a group of dialects. The formation of Russian. dialect lexicography falls on the middle. 19th century, although interest in folk dialects arose as early as the 18th century, when numerous lists of local words began to appear in various ethnographic, historical, economic and geographical descriptions. Examples: "Frequency Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language" by E. A. Steinfeldt (1963), "Pskov Regional Dictionary with Historical Data" (1967)".

2. Slang vocabulary.

Jargon is a social type of speech used by a narrow circle of native speakers, united by a common interest, occupation, position in society. In modern Russian, youth jargon or slang is distinguished, professional jargon, and camp jargon is also used in places of deprivation of liberty.

The most widespread was youth jargon, popular with students and young people. Jargons, as a rule, have equivalents in the national language: hostel-dormitory, scholarship-stipend, spurs-cribs, etc. The appearance of many jargons is associated with the desire of young people to express their attitude to the subject, phenomenon more vividly, more emotionally. Hence such evaluative words: awesome, cool, killer, high, etc. All of them are common only in oral speech and are often absent in dictionaries.

The camp jargon, which was used by people placed in special living conditions, reflected the terrible life in places of detention: convict (prisoner), gruel (stew), informer (informer).

3. Colloquial vocabulary.

Vernacular is a variety of the Russian national language, the carrier of which is the uneducated and semi-educated urban population.

Vernacular is realized in the oral form of speech; at the same time, of course, it can be reflected in fiction and in private correspondence of persons - carriers of vernacular. The most typical places for the implementation of vernacular are: the family (communication within the family and with relatives), the court (witness testimony, an appointment with a judge), a doctor's office (a patient's story about an illness). In modern vernacular, two modern layers are distinguished - a layer of old, traditional means that clearly reveal their dialectal origin, and a layer of relatively new means that came into common speech mainly from social jargons. Therefore, vernacular-1 and vernacular-2 are distinguished. The carrier of vernacular-1 are elderly citizens with a low educational and cultural level (mostly elderly women); among the carriers of vernacular-2, representatives of the middle and younger generations, who also do not have enough education, predominate (a significant part are men).

Examples: maybe (maybe a particle), so hot; not so hot (not very good).

Ticket 13. Borrowed vocabulary: typology, features of use and orthology. Etymological dictionary. Dictionary of foreign words

Borrowing- one of the ways to replenish vocabulary. The Russian people throughout its existence has entered into economic, political, cultural ties with other peoples, and borrowing is the result of these contacts. Borrowing is based on the principle of expediency. In the original language of borrowed words, there are no more than 10-14% (in some periods, about 20%), but the basis of an independent language is the original vocabulary. "Alien" words were deciphered in different ways: some became synonymous with Russian ones (barbarisms), others, generalizing realities that do not exist in Russian reality, have synonyms (exoticisms).

Borrowings

From the Old Church Slavonic Language of translations of Greek church literature, translations were made by Kirillov and Methodius. The basis is the ancient Greek language, the Macedonian dialect. The main features are: 1) dissonance - -ra, -la-, -re, -le (gate, head, sequence) in place of Russian full agreement (votora, head, sequence) 2) combinations of ra-, la- at the beginning of a word (equal , boat) instead of Russian ro-, lo- (smooth, boat) 3) initial e instead of Russian o (single - one, spring - autumn) 4) combination of railway (walking, ignorant) in place of Russian f (walking, ignorant) 5 ) prefixes through-, pre-, water-, out-, bottom-, pre- (excessive, destiny, repay, elect, shoots, expel) 6) roots good-, good-, evil-, sacrifice- 7) individual words : cross, rod, power, universe, disaster, sackcloth, goalkeeper, guard, helmet. 8) sh-Russian h (lighting - a candle) 9) Russian y - Old Slavonic y

The fate of the Old Slavs:

Usage in speech:

1) create book speech

2) call realities alien to our lives

3) recreate the color of the era

4) create a speech portrait

5) create pasta (inappropriately saturated with borrowings) speech

Functional characteristics of borrowed words:

1) words limited in use - words that have been preserved in varying degrees its "foreignness" (file, holding, sprite)

a) terms of narrow use that do not have synonyms in Russian speech (phoneme, advice note, assimilation)

b) words used to refer to the national life of other peoples (exoticisms) (arba, ditches, talibs)

c) words that have retained their "native" sound and spelling (c "estlavie - such is life)

d) "slang foreigners" - words used as "fashionable" in certain social strata (horror film, dreadlocks)

2) words not limited in use - words that do not stand out against the background of the original vocabulary.

a) words that have lost any signs of non-Russian origin (picture, chair, bed, iron)

b) words that have retained some signs of "foreignness" (veil, jury), derivational (trainee, antibiotics), paradigmatic (cinema, cafe, salami)

c) internationalisms - words that are equally understood in several non-native languages (terror, dictatorship, telephone)

Replenishment of Russian vocabulary went in two directions:

§ The emergence of new words from the existing word-formation elements (roots, prefixes, suffixes) in the language.

§ As a result of economic, cultural, political ties with other peoples, new borrowing words penetrated into the Russian language.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language consists of native Russian words (Indo-Europeanisms, common Slavic, East Slavic, proper Russian vocabulary) and borrowed words (from Slavic, non-Slavic languages, Scandinavian, Turkic, Latin, Greek and other borrowings).

The main reasons for borrowing:

1. The need for naming new things, phenomena, concepts: computer; blazer (a special cut fitted jacket); grant (monetary allowance issued by special funds and intended for material support of scientific research); digest (a special kind of log containing summary materials from other publications).

2. The need to distinguish between concepts: makeup artist (from French visage - face) and previously borrowed designer (artist-designer, from English, design - idea, drawing, project); player (from English, to play - play) and Russian. player (player - a compact player with headphones, a player - an apparatus for playing music on records).

3. The need for specialization of concepts: marketing (market), management (management), audit (audit, control), realtor (real estate entrepreneur), paparazzi (obnoxious gossip reporters), killer (professional, hired killer), leasing ( lease with redemption according to income).

Reasons for borrowing

1) language

a) the absence of the name of the object or phenomenon (camera, hamburger, computer)

b) the desire for semantic and stylistic differentiation

c) the operation of the law of speech economy (fireproof cabinet - safe)

2) connection

a) awareness of foreign words is more prestigious

b) assessment of borrowing as signs of SOMETHING development

c) using borrowings as euphemisms

d) influence of language fashion

Borrowing conditions:

1) The presence of contacts between the language of the donor and the receiving language

2) willingness of society to accept loans

13-17% of borrowed words in the language are considered optimal. The borrowing process is a part metaphorically comparable to a pendulum ("pendulum effect")

exoticisms- words that characterize the specific features of life different peoples and are used when describing non-Russian reality: horseman, persimmon, lavash, dollar. Exoticisms do not have Russian synonyms.

barbarisms- foreign words transferred to Russian soil, the use of which is of an individual nature. Barbarisms are not mastered by the Russian language, they are not fixed in dictionaries and sound like aliens, they have synonyms in Russian: teenager, upgrade, businessman. Speech saturated with barbarisms is called macaronic.

Signs of borrowed words

1. The presence of the initial letter "a": lampshade, April, scarlet, army, pharmacy.

2. The presence of the letter "e" in the root of the word: mayor, aloe, emotions, phaeton.

3. The presence of the letter "f" in the word: decanter, spacesuit, February.

4. The presence of combinations of two or more vowels in the roots of words: diet, duel, halo, poem, guard.

5. 5 The presence of combinations of consonants "kd", "kz", "gb", "kg" in the roots of words: anecdote, station, barrier, warehouse.

6. The presence of combinations "ge", "ke", "he" in the root: legend, food, trachea.

7. The presence of combinations "byu", "vu", "kyu", "mu" in the roots of words: bureau, engraving, ditch, communiqué.

8. The presence of double consonants in the roots of words: villa, progress, profession, session, bath.

9. Pronunciation of a solid consonant sound before vowels [e] (letter "e"): model [de], test [te].

10. Inflexibility of words: protege, cashew, barbecue.

Basic rules for pronunciation of borrowed words:

Weak reduction or lack of it. In some words, in place of O, [O] is pronounced: beau monde, trio, poet.

In borrowed proper names, there is no reduction and there is no softening of consonants before E: Voltaire, Chopin.

In some words, [E] clearly sounds at the beginning of the word: aegis, duelist, evolution.

The pronunciation of hard / soft consonants before E depends on the degree of assimilation: completely - only softly (museum, brunette, canned food, overcoat); recently borrowed - only firmly (computer, printer, showman, sandwich); equal options - and so, and so (dean, session, pool, cream - krEm - acceptable).

Of the morphological features, inflexibility is the most important: taxi, coffee, coat. Derivational features include foreign prefixes and suffixes: deduction, interval, regression; dean's office, student, editor, college.

One of the methods of borrowing is tracing - the construction of lexical units on the model of the corresponding words of a foreign language by accurately translating their significant parts or borrowing individual meanings of words.

Kalki are:

Lexical, derivational- arise as a result of a literal translation into Russian of a foreign word in parts: hydrogen, oxygen, skyscraper, spelling.

Semantic- primordial words that acquire new meanings under the influence of another language: a picture as a "work of painting" and as a "movie" - a tracing paper of the English polysemantic word picture.

Another way of borrowing is half-calques - words that combine verbatim translated foreign and Russian word-formation elements: humanity - the Latin root, the Russian suffix -OST: television - Greek -TELE and Russian - VISION of the base.)

Motivated e - a word that denotes an object whose designation is not in our speech

Unmotivated- vice versa

Nowadays, new borrowings are associated with the scientific and technological revolution, changes in politics, economics, culture, with "Americanization", "computer language". For example, among the latest borrowings, the most famous are: iPhone, i-C-Q, holding, computer, bluetooth, bestseller, windsurfing, auditor, monitoring and many others.

The liberalization of the language also led to the excessive, unmotivated use of borrowings in speech. Many cases of using borrowings are meaningless, people try to use them as much as possible, just to look prestigious. For example, when new borrowings replace already Russified foreign words (display - screen, hit - hit, show - spectacle) or native Russian words (victoria - victory, linguist - linguist). Along with borrowings, the modern Russian language is characterized by excessive use of abbreviations: UIN, OBEP, OODUUM and PDN ATC, civil defense and emergency situations.

Errors in the use of foreign words arise due to ignorance of the meaning of words and their semantics. This often leads to the emergence of pleonasms (a free vacancy, the most optimal solution), grammatical and morphological errors (with beautiful blinds), a violation of the appropriateness of the statement (if the meaning of a foreign word is not clear to the entire audience).

Etymological dictionaries - explain the history of the appearance of a word in the language (Fasmer M. "Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language").

Dictionaries of foreign words - describe borrowed words (E.N. Zakharenko, L.N. Komarova, I.V. Nechaeva "New Dictionary of Foreign Words"). Recently, dictionary entries of such dictionaries contain both encyclopedic and linguistic information.

Ticket 14. Old Slavonicisms: signs, place in various areas of the modern Russian language, expressive possibilities

Russian language- a historically established linguistic community, genetically belongs to the group of East Slavic languages, which go back to a common source - the common Slavic language, common and uniform (to varying degrees) for all Slavic tribes.

Aboriginal vocabulary- combines the vocabulary of the Indo-European period, common Slavic, East Slavic and later times. A special place is occupied by common Slavic vocabulary, according to the observations of linguists, there are no more than 2000 such words, but these are high-frequency words that make up about a quarter of the words in everyday communication.

Borrowings

From the Old Church Slavonic Language of translations of Greek church literature, translations were made by Cyril and Methodius. The basis is the ancient Greek language, the Macedonian dialect. The main features are: 1) dissonance - -ra, -la-, -re, -le (gate, head, sequence) in place of Russian full agreement (votora, head, sequence) 2) combinations of ra-, la- at the beginning of a word (equal , boat) instead of Russian ro-, lo- (smooth, boat) 3) initial e instead of Russian o (single - one, esen - autumn) 4) combination of railway (walking, ignorant) in place of Russian f (walking, ignorant) 5 ) prefixes through-, pre-, air-, out-, down-, pre- (excessive, destiny, repay, elect, shoots, expel) 6) roots good-, good-, evil-, sacrifice- 7) individual words : cross, rod, power, universe, disaster, sackcloth, goalkeeper, guard, helmet. 8) st.slav.sch-Russian h (lighting - a candle) 9) Russian y - Old Slavonic y

From other languages Grecisms - bread, bed, notebook Latinisms - audience, excursion Türkisms - stocking, shoe, suitcase Anglicisms - electorate, export, relic Gallicisms (from French) - blouse, veil, bureau, attache From Dutch - admiral, felling From German - assault, climbs, bow

The fate of the Old Slavs:

Some have replaced the original Russian words (food - pishcha, thing - forever)

The part has acquired a functional coloring and is used in scientific and official business texts (on demand, claim, condolence)

For a long time were the main education terms (mammals)

Part has kareyads (correspondences) in the modern Russian literary language and is characterized by bookishness, elation, rhetoric (hail, hair, mouth)

Old Church Slavonic vocabulary gives sublimity to the text. In the poetry of classicism, acting as the main component of the odic dictionary, Old Slavonicisms determined the solemn style of "high poetry".

§ Derzhavin is considered the first spokesman of the individual creative principle. "Vision of Murza": high style (truncated adjectives, high vocabulary, suffixes and prefixes of Old Slavonic origin)

§ Lomonosov managed to clearly distinguish between Old Slavonic and Russian words. The basis of the theory of 3 styles is the classification of the speeches of the Russian and Slavic languages.

Ticket 15. Passive vocabulary

Language as a system is in constant motion, development, and the vocabulary is the most mobile level of the language. First of all, it reacts to all changes in society, being filled with new words. At the same time, the names of objects and phenomena that are no longer used in the life of peoples are falling out of use.

The language has active vocabulary words that are constantly used in speech, as well as passive vocabulary words, such as obsolete and new words.

obsolete words- these are words that have ceased to be actively used in the vocabulary, but have not yet disappeared from it, are still understandable to speakers of this language, are known from the literature. Such words are given in explanatory dictionaries marked obsolete.

The process of archaization occurs gradually. The reasons for archaization are different: they can be extralinguistic in nature (refusal to use the word is associated with social transformations), or they can be due to linguistic laws (the words oshuyu, odesnaya are out of use, since the words shuytsa and right hand have gone out). In rare cases, there is a revival of the word: gymnasium, lyceum, Duma (after the 17th year they were considered historicisms).

Types of obsolete words:

1. Historicisms - the names of disappeared objects, phenomena, concepts: guardsman, chain mail, gendarme, hussar, tutor, Bolshevik, NEP. As a rule, the appearance of historicisms is caused by extralinguistic reasons: social transformations in society, the development of production, etc. Historicisms do not have synonyms in modern Russian. This is explained by the fact that the very realities that these words denoted are outdated. Historicisms can be words that differ in the time of their appearance: in the days of very distant eras (oprichnina, governor), in very recent times (tax in kind, county).

2. Archaisms - the names of existing objects and phenomena, for some reason displaced by other words: it is necessary - it is necessary, to verb - to speak, to know - to know. Archaisms have modern synonyms in Russian.

Archaisms are:

1. Lexical - obsolete in all their meanings: lying (possible), barber (hairdresser), therefore, very (very).

2. Lexical and derivational - some word-forming elements are outdated: it is necessary, to transgress, fisherman.

3. Lexico-phonetic - outdated phonetic design: young, breg, night, English (English).

4. Lexico-semantic - words that have lost their individual meanings: guest - merchant, dream - thought.

The most numerous group is lexical archaisms.

Neologisms- new words that have not yet become familiar and everyday names of the corresponding objects, concepts. Over time, new words are assimilated and move from a passive to an active vocabulary.

This term is used in the history of the language to characterize the enrichment of the vocabulary in certain historical periods - so, we can talk about the neologisms of Peter the Great, the neologisms of individual cultural figures (M. V. Lomonosov, N. M. Karamzin and his school), the neologisms of the period of the Patriotic wars, etc.

In developed languages, tens of thousands of neologisms appear every year. Most of them have a short life, but some are fixed in the language for a long time, enter not only into its living everyday fabric, but also become an integral part of literature.

Being fully mastered by the language, neologisms cease to be neologisms, becoming ordinary words of the main stock of the language.

In addition to general language, speech can contain author's (individual, individual-stylistic) neologisms (occasionalisms), which are created by authors for certain artistic purposes. They rarely go beyond the context, are not widely used, as a rule, remain an accessory of an individual style, so that their novelty and unusualness are preserved.

Depending on the method of appearance, lexical neologisms are distinguished, which are created according to productive models or borrowed from other languages, and semantic, which arise as a result of assigning new meanings to already known words (landslide, steep).

Depending on the conditions of creation, they distinguish general language neologisms that appeared along with a new concept or reality (collective farm, Komsomol, five-year plan) and individual author's ones that were put into use by specific authors (in session - Mayakovsky; constellation, full moon, attraction - Lomonosov).

There are also occasional neologisms are lexical units, the occurrence of which is determined by a certain context: in heavy snake hair, wide-noisy oak trees. Artistic and literary occasional neologisms are called individual stylistic. They serve as an expressive means in the context of one, specific work.

Depending on the purpose of creation, neologisms are divided into nominative and stylistic. The former perform a nominative function - they name an object (pre-perestroika, riot police, federals, feminization), and the latter give a figurative description of objects that already have names (pioneer, collapse, steep, lawlessness, starship). The former almost never have synonyms and are highly specialized terms, while the latter have synonyms.

Use of obsolete words:

They give the speech a solemn, sublime sound: Arise, prophet, and see, and listen ...

In works of art to create the color of the era: How the prophetic Oleg is now going to take revenge on the unreasonable Khazars ...

Sometimes high vocabulary is used to create satire.

Use of neologisms:

To denote new realities: feminization, riot police.

As a means of artistic expressiveness of speech: in heavy snake hair, wide-noisy oak trees.

Introduction

This course work is a study of the functioning of terminological and professional vocabulary based on the novel by Emile Zola "Germinal".

Relevance: We live in the age of technological and informational progress, in the age of many discoveries and innovations in the field of science, technology and information. These processes also have an impact on the composition of the modern French language. The vocabulary is replenished with new terms, professionalisms, which is necessary to designate new and already existing concepts and phenomena. In the context of the rapid growth in the number of professional and terminological units, the importance of solving both theoretical and practical problems of systematizing terminological and professional vocabulary, determining their place in the lexical system and features of functioning is indisputable.

object study is the language of the novel "Germinal" by Émile Zola.

Subject of study: the functioning of terminological and professional vocabulary in Emile Zola's novel "Germinal".

Objective: identification and analysis of the features of the functioning of professional and terminological vocabulary in the novel by Emile Zola "Germinal".

The goal is to solve the following tasks:

1) consideration of the concept of "lexical system";

2) determination of the stylistic layers of the vocabulary of the modern French language;

3) clarification of the concept of "lexicon of a limited scope of use";

4) consideration and clarification of the concepts of "term" and "professionalism";

5) establishing ways to systematize terminological and professional vocabulary;

6) identifying the features of the functioning of terminological and professional vocabulary in the text of Emile Zola's novel "Germinal".

material terminological and professional units of Emile Zola's novel "Germinal" were used for the study.

Theoretical significance is that this study summarizes theoretical knowledge about professional and terminological vocabulary, defines the features of its functioning in Emile Zola's novel "Germinal".

Practical value research is that its results can be applied in the process of further study of the vocabulary of a limited scope of use in French, in practical and special French courses.

Work structure determined by the goals and objectives set. The course work consists of an introduction, five chapters, a conclusion and a list of references. The first chapter discusses the stylistic stratification of the vocabulary of the modern French language, gives a definition of the concept of "lexicon of a limited scope of use". The second chapter examines the scientific literature on the issue of "terminological vocabulary", systematizes the morphological and semantic ways of forming terminological vocabulary. The third chapter deals with professional vocabulary: the semantics of the concept and the scope of use are determined, and the classification of professionalisms according to the methods of formation is given. The fourth chapter summarizes the theoretical knowledge about naturalism as a literary movement that most accurately and in detail depicts contemporary reality through terms and professionalism. The fifth chapter contains an analysis of the functioning of the terminological and professional vocabulary taken from the text of the novel "Germinal". The conclusion contains conclusions on the work as a whole. The list of references contains materials that were the theoretical basis of this study.

1. Vocabulary as a system of linguistic units

1.1 System organization of lexical units

french vocabulary professional terminological

The characterization of the lexical meaning of a word includes not only a description of the plan of the content of each individual word, but also the establishment of its relationship to other words. Certain relationships are found between the words that form the vocabulary of the language. These relationships are diverse and complex, since words can interact and enter as an integral part of structurally organized units of one type or another based on the complete coincidence or similarity of their external appearance (homonymy and paronymy), belonging to the same grammatical class ( parts of speech), similarities or opposites of lexical meaning (synonymy and antonymy), features of their compatibility (lexical and syntactic). The essence of the systemic organization of vocabulary is most deeply manifested in the diverse semantic relationships between words. These connections can arise both on the basis of the extralinguistic commonality of the realities denoted by words (by their similarity, contiguity, function, purpose, etc.), and on the intralinguistic unity of words, which, as a rule, correlate with the same realia (subject) , phenomenon, property, sign (or classes of homogeneous realities, phenomena, properties, signs). But at the same time, words that are semantically related to each other by the commonality of this or that reality represent it in the language in different ways.

Thus, the presence of these relations allows us to speak about a certain organization of words in the vocabulary, about the existence of a lexical system of the language.

A system is a set of interdependent or in a certain way ordered elements that form a certain unity, and a structure is a set of stable relationships between the elements included in the system or a way of ordering the elements in the system in relation to vocabulary. This means that the system is the words of a given language plus the set of relations between them, and the structure is the set of relations between words. Consequently, the structure of the lexical system is only a part of this system, its internal organization.

On the basis of taking into account the totality of relations between words, the place of each word in the lexical system should be determined. In turn, determining the place of a word in a lexical system can be viewed from a linguistic point of view as revealing an essential moment that characterizes the meaning of a word. For example, the word malfaiteur may be included in the following associations lexical units formed on the basis of different types of relations:

1) words that are in etymological relationship: faire, défaire, faisable, fainéant, affaire, forfait, fazon, facteur etc.;

nouns with the meaning of the agent, decorated with the suffix - teur: explorer, directeur, spectator etc.;

words with a negative meaning component expressed through the element mal- : malfaisant, malfamy, malsain,maladresse, malproprete etc.;

words for which malfaiteur acts as a word of general meaning (terme général): bandit, escroc, gangster, Voleur etc.;

synonyms : criminel, scülérat;

antonyms: bienfaiteur;

words associated with malfaiteur contextually or situationally: coupable, détenu, juge, gendarme, tribunal, cour d "assises, crime etc.

The vocabulary of a language is an extremely complex, multidimensional and multidimensional system based on various relationships between words, and it is almost impossible to imagine this system simultaneously with all types of relationships between its elements.

1.2 Stylistic stratification of vocabulary

The lexical composition of the language is a collection of very different words in terms of their scope. Some words are used frequently and everywhere, in texts of any genre and by people of different social strata and ages. The scope of other words is limited. Yes, from synonyms mourir, dthcthder, expirer, trthpassenger, claquer, casser la pipe one native speaker may never use some words, although they are all equally clear to him, another prefers one or two lexemes, the third, depending on the circumstances, will resort to different language units.

In any developed language, as a historically established objective regularity, there is a distinction between higher, bookish speech and lowered, colloquial speech, which affects all linguistic means. Book speech is distinguished by the thoughtfulness of the choice of all methods of expression, the processing, and a more complete character. It is most often carried out in writing and requires a certain level of knowledge. Spoken speech is characterized by spontaneity, an unprepared character, and the absence of a “draft”. It arises at the moment of speaking, and therefore often violates the norms of book speech, or rather creates its own norms, due to the peculiarities of its generation. Book and colloquial speech find their expression in the system of functional styles. functional style - this is a kind of literary language in which the language appears in one or another socially significant area of social speech practice of people and the features of which are determined by the peculiarities of communication in this area. Usually, five styles of language and speech are distinguished: official-business, scientific, newspaper-journalistic, style of fiction and colloquial style . The basis of the lexical composition of all styles is the so-called neutral words, i.e. those that do not bear the imprint of any style. The neutral style is a kind of starting point for style “fluctuations”: vtotements "clothing" is a neutral word used in all styles of speech, accoutrement “robe” is an obsolete word marked in the literary language, fringues, frusques, nippes “junk, clothes, rags” - lowered words, marked with colloquial speech.

The stylistic coloring of the word indicates the possibility of using it in one or another functional style (in combination with commonly used, neutral vocabulary). However, this does not mean that the functional attachment of words to a certain style excludes their use in other styles. For modern development The language is characterized by mutual influence and interpenetration of styles, and this contributes to the movement of lexical means (simultaneously with other language elements) from one style to another. Thus, in scientific works journalistic vocabulary often coexists with terminology. The scientific style does not exclude emotional speech, and this determines the use of evaluative vocabulary, high and low words in it.

The journalistic style is even more open to the penetration of foreign-style vocabulary. In a newspaper article, you can often find terms next to colloquial and even vernacular vocabulary. Of the bookish styles, only the official business style is impervious to colloquial vocabulary, to emotionally expressive words. Although in the special genres of this style it is possible to use journalistic elements, and, consequently, evaluative vocabulary (but from the group of book words). The violation of the stylistic norm is the unreasonable mixing of vocabulary of different styles, which results in inappropriate comedy, the introduction of colloquial elements into book speech.

1.3 Vocabulary as an open system

The national language serves all the needs of the people who speak it. Over the centuries, it has taken forms that are most appropriate for performing various communicative tasks.

The vocabulary of a language is the most mobile and most rapidly developing part of it. The vocabulary of any language is the first to react to all changes in the history of the people - the native speaker of this language, concerning any aspect of life: economic structure, social structure, production, culture, science, life, etc. New concepts and phenomena arise, new objects are created - new words are born that designate them, new meanings of words that already exist in the language are formed. The specificity of the vocabulary as the most "fluid", changeable part of the language does not always allow a strict distinction between conceptual spheres. With the advent of the new, the oblivion of the old, obsolete often occurs, and with the disappearance of a phenomenon or object, the word denoting it often dies. Just like life human society is in constant development, the vocabulary of the language is in constant motion, regulated by social needs.

Movement to the center of the lexical system is possible with an increase in their communicative significance, if the concepts they denote acquire special vital importance. This has happened with many words related to the field of mass communication, for example thmission, chaaboutne, antenna, speakerine and others. Born as terms, until recently they were on the periphery of the lexical system, but now they are moving towards its center.

Lexical layers remain on the periphery of the system that serve the needs of certain professional groups, certain social and regional strata of the population, that is, dialectisms, professionalisms, terms, jargon, etc. - elements of the lexical system that are not the common fund of the language community. There are also those lexemes that, for various reasons, go out of use, and those that are new to the language, recently emerged and not yet accepted by the main part of the linguistic society. The former, as having lost their relevance, move from the center to the periphery, in order to eventually go beyond the limits of this system, i.e. cease to exist. The latter, on the contrary, usually move from the periphery to the center; the most viable ones remain in the core of the lexical system of the language, becoming components of the main vocabulary fund.

1.4 Vocabulary of restricted scope

The vocabulary of the French language, depending on the nature of its functioning, is divided into two large groups: commonly used ( dépendre de, entraoner, présenter un intirkt, représenter un pourcentage, relation a, correspondant a) and a limited scope of use. The first group includes words, the use of which is not limited either by the territory of distribution or by the type of activity of people; it forms the basis of the vocabulary of the French language. This includes the names of concepts and phenomena from different areas of society: political, economic, cultural, everyday, which gives reason to single out various thematic groups of words in the composition of the national vocabulary. Moreover, all of them are understandable and accessible to every native speaker and can be used in a variety of conditions, without any limitation.

Vocabulary of a limited scope of use is common within a certain area or among people united by profession, social characteristics, common interests, pastime, etc. Such words are used mainly in oral irregular speech. However, artistic speech does not refuse to use them: writers find in them the means to stylize the artistic narrative, to create the speech characteristics of the characters.

In the vocabulary with a limited scope of use from the point of view of the socio-dialectal sphere of distribution, there are, firstly, words inherent in certain territorial dialects, dialects (the so-called dialectisms), and secondly, special words, professional terminological, as well as jargon- argotic.

2. Terminological vocabulary: functions and specifics of use

2.1 The semantic essence of the term

bobinage chevauchement, transformation (), . (military-industrial complex conversion). fin. math, inform. Changement de code; milit. sport. u\\ skieur; psijehan.

lat.conversion

accélération, impact, area

2.2 Terminology and terminology

The development of science and technology, the emergence of new branches of science is always accompanied by the abundant appearance of new terms. Therefore, terminology is one of the most mobile, fast-growing and rapidly changing parts of the national vocabulary. Modern researchers note that the accelerating pace of the scientific and technological revolution over the past decades has led and is increasingly leading to an avalanche-like growth of information in all areas of knowledge, production and scientific activities.

Terminology (terminology - obsolete) is a science that studies special vocabulary in terms of its typology, origin, form, content (meaning) and functioning, as well as use, ordering and creation.

Currently, a number of independent areas of research are distinguished in terminology. First of all, we can distinguish theoretical terminology, which studies the patterns of development and use of special vocabulary and applied terminology based on it, developing practical principles and recommendations for eliminating the shortcomings of terms and terminologies, their description, evaluation, editing, ordering, creation, translation and use. General terminology studies the most general properties, problems and processes occurring in a special vocabulary, and private or branch terminology deals with the study of special vocabulary and concepts of certain areas of knowledge of specific languages. There are also typological, comparative, semasiological, onomasiological, historical, functional terminology.

The object of ordering in terminology is terminology, that is, a naturally formed set of terms of a certain field of knowledge or its fragment. Terminology is subjected to systematization, then analysis, in which its shortcomings and methods for their elimination are revealed, and, finally, normalization. The result of this work is presented in the form of a terminological system - an ordered set of terms with fixed relationships between them, reflecting the relationship between the concepts called by these terms.

Terminology (from “term” and “logia”) is a field of vocabulary, a set of terms of a certain branch of science, technology, production, art, social activity, associated with the corresponding system of concepts. The formation of terminology is due to social and scientific and technological development, since any new concept in a special field must be denoted by a term. The terminological system must correspond to the level of modern development of a given branch of science and technology, a field of human activity; it is historically changeable, has different sources during formation. For example, with the development of philosophy and science in the Middle East, Arabic terminology became the basis of the terminology of the countries of the Muslim East. In Europe, since the Renaissance, the trend towards the formation of terminology based on Greek and Latin languages has prevailed. In recent times, the number of terms created on national basis using terms from other languages.

2.3 The specifics of the formation of terms and their classification

Among the word-forming distinguishing features of terms is the regularity (uniformity) of their formation within a certain terminological system. The formation of terms occurs constantly in different ways. The following methods are used to create new terms:

· proper lexical, that is, the formation of words and phrases based on the original lexical units (charge, substances maternelles - physique);

* lexical and derivational, that is, the creation of terms using the existing in the Russian language or borrowed word-building elements, morphemes, according to the models available in the language. The most productive among them are addition and affixation (prefixed, prefixed-suffixal: whirl, grounding, reduction, and others). So, different types of addition of bases and words are used. Addition of complete bases: cotylédon- cotyledon, quintefeuille- cinquefoil and so on; addition of truncated stems (complex abbreviated words): bacteriforme- shaped like a bacterium balnyophytothйrapie- balneophytotherapy and others; use of foreign language elements airien-, auto-, bio-, vidio -, zoo -, inter -, macro -, micro- other: ironomie, biophysique, zooplancton other; abbreviation : VRS- respiratory syncytial infection virus, VTAM- virtual telecommunications access method, VVH- volume factor (reservoir oil) per hour. Terms formed by addition can be indivisible lexicalized units ( cosmology,biocybernétique and so on), but they can also be units of incomplete lexicalization, that is, those that are not one indivisible lexeme ( baby-sitting- babysitting (for an hourly fee)), as evidenced by the hyphenated spelling of words.

* lexico-semantic a way to replenish terminological vocabulary; that is, the creation of a term in the process of scientific (or technical) rethinking of well-known words, as a result of which secondary, in this case, specially terminological nominations arise. This process goes in two ways:

1) by a complete rethinking of the existing word and the subsequent separation of the newly created unit from the source word. This is how, for example, one of the terminological meanings of the word “ élémentaire" in combination " particule elementaire»;

2) by using the transfer of the name, taking into account the emerging associations. This is how the terminological meaning of the word " neige» - a special kind of image. This method allows in some cases to create terminological names with expression elements in semantics, for example: image véreuse- worm image, atomйtrange- alien atom.

A significant role in replenishing terminological systems is played by foreign borrowingI (algorithm, bathyscaphe). For a long time, many international scientific, technical, economic, cultural, historical, socio-political terms of Latin and Greek origin have been known in the language, for example: agglutination, binaire; humanity, dictature, littérature and other words from Latin ; agronomie, dynamique, grammaire, cosmos, democracy and others from Greek. A lot of terms came from other languages. Many of these terms are international.

As part of the terminological vocabulary, several “layers” can be distinguished, differing in the scope of use, features of the designated object.
1. First of all, this general scientific terms, which are used in various fields of knowledge and belong to the scientific style of speech as a whole: expérience, adéquat, équivalent, hypothétique, progresser etc. These terms form a common conceptual fund of various sciences and have the highest frequency of use.

2. Differ and special terms which are assigned to certain scientific disciplines, branches of production and technology; For example, in linguistics: sujet, prédicat, adjectif, pronom; in medicine: embolie, myome, parodontite, cardiologie; mathematical: facteur, rthsultat, volume, somme, quantityth, diffthrence, total, constant, variables, moyen, augmenter, diminuer; In these terminologies, the quintessence of each science is concentrated. According to S. Bally, such terms "are the ideal types of linguistic expression, to which the scientific language inevitably strives."

2.4 The role of terminological vocabulary. Determinologization

The role of terms in science is great. It has been established, for example, that the concept of inertia was already known to Galileo's predecessors. But only from the moment when Galileo gave this phenomenon the name inertia, the very idea of inertia was clarified and the concept entered scientific circulation. In a number of cases, the transition from assumptions and conjectures to exact knowledge is accomplished with the help of the statement of the corresponding term. That is why all the great scientists have given Special attention creation and development of scientific terminology.

A significant contribution to the formation of Russian terminology was made by M.V. Lomonosov. He owns the titles: aurore boreale- Northern Lights, ax de la terre- earth's axis , pompe a air- air pump, poids spécifique- share, etc. By fixing the time of birth of a particular term, one can judge the development of science, its problems, objects of study, the emergence of new scientific directions.

It is quite natural that terms are quite often found in the speech of people of different specialties: engineers, doctors, economists, lawyers, teachers, agronomists, etc. However, not everyone and not always skillfully use them, do not think about whether the terms are understandable to listeners, do not take into account features of the perception of the semantics of the word in sounding speech. The difference in understanding the content of words between the sender and the recipient reduces the effectiveness of perception.

In the process of communication, people often have to explain how to understand what is being discussed, to clarify what meaning this or that word or expression has. Speech practice developed several ways of explaining words. They are used by lexicographers when compiling dictionaries; teachers, teaching schoolchildren, students; politicians, diplomats, lawyers, interpreting the meaning of documents, laws. Everyone should master the methods of explaining words if he is responsible for his speeches, his speech, is interested in improving its culture.

Terminological vocabulary, like no other, is informative. Therefore, in the language of science, terms are indispensable: they allow you to briefly and extremely accurately formulate an idea. However, the degree of terminology of scientific works is not the same. The frequency of the use of terms depends on the nature of the presentation, the addressing of the text. Modern society requires such a form of description of the data obtained, which would make it possible to make the greatest discoveries of mankind the property of everyone. However, the language of monographic studies is often so overloaded with terms that it becomes inaccessible even to a specialist. Therefore, it is important that the terminology used be sufficiently mastered by science, and newly introduced terms must be explained.

In modern French, a twofold process is taking place: a sharp increase in specific terms accessible only to specialists, the number of which in every highly developed language grows extremely and amounts to millions, many times exceeding the generally accepted vocabulary, and at the same time, an intensive spread of terms outside scientific works and penetration special terminology into the general literary language, which gives grounds to talk about the general terminology of modern speech. Along with the process of terminology of commonly used words, there is also a reverse process - the assimilation of terms by the literary language, their determinology. For example, the frequent use of philosophical, art criticism, literary criticism, medical, physical, chemical, industrial and technical and many other terms and terminological phrases made them commonly used lexical units, for example: argument, dialectics, thinking, concept, consciousness; drama, concert, romance, contact, tension, resonance; analysis, synthesis, and others, as well as the fulcrum, freezing point, boiling point, center of gravity, and so on. Often found in a context with commonly used words, the terms are metaphorized and lose their special purpose, for example : anatomy d "amour- anatomy of love , sclérose de conscience- sclerosis of conscience. Many of these words and phrases in general literary use have a different, often metaphorical meaning: catalyseur - a (special) substance that speeds up, slows down or changes the course of a chemical reaction, and a catalyst - (portative) stimulator of something. Special terminology becomes the main source of replenishment of the vocabulary of the literary language. So, many words that have terminological meaning are widely used without any restrictions: tracteur, radio, télévision, oxygine. Determinologized words are widely used in different styles of speech: colloquial, bookish (in journalism, works of art, etc.). Along with them, professionalisms and terms are often used.

However, the excessive saturation of artistic and journalistic works with scientific and technical terminology reduces the strength of their impact and artistic value, and was condemned back in the late 20s and early 30s by A.M. Gorky, who wrote: “... No need to abuse shop terminology, or you should explain the terms. This must be done without fail, because it gives the book a wider distribution, makes it easier to assimilate everything that is said in it.

Determinologization of professional and technical names is facilitated by oral speech, systematic broadcasts on relevant topics on radio and television. The inclusion of special words in this case is determined by the subject and genre of publications (or oral transmissions), that is, it is caused by a certain situation. The dissemination and then complete or partial (which is more often observed) determinologization of professional terminological names is also helped by works of art in which these words are used for a specific stylistic or characterological purpose; the desire to update the generally accepted tone of the narration, focusing on unusual word usage for a work of art.

For example, the word " Montagne”, meaning in wide use - “a significant hill rising above the surrounding area” and having a number of figurative meanings, does not contain specific height measurements in its interpretation. In geographical terminology, where the distinction between the terms “ Montagne” and “colline”, a clarification is given - “a hill over 200 m in height”. Thus, the use of such words outside the scientific style is associated with their partial determinology.

3. Professional vocabulary: definition and approaches

3.1 Semantics of the concept of "professional vocabulary"

In special vocabulary, words and expressions are used by groups of people united by the nature of their activity (by profession), in various areas of production, techniques, which, however, have not become commonly used - the so-called professionalisms. Their status is quite complicated, because some experts: a) identify with the terms, b) refer to the units of craft vocabulary; c) to special non-nominative vocabulary (verbs, adverbs, adjectives); d) non-standardized special vocabulary, limited to the use in the oral speech of professionals in an informal setting, and often having emotional and expressive connotations. Unlike terms - official scientific names of special concepts, professionalisms function mainly in oral speech as "semi-official" words that do not have a strictly scientific character. Professionalisms serve to designate various production processes, tools of production, raw materials, manufactured products, etc. For example, technical professionalism: charge d "un atelier, calcul des tolérances, gestion de l" enterprise, escompte, par itération; theatrical: armoire a sons = piano de l "orchestre, baisser le torchon = baisser le rideau, un tunnel = longue tirade dans le texte, faire de la baraque = donner un mauvais spectacle, boire ta lasse = connaоtre l" insucci and complet; artists: crôte =peinture qui n "est pas au goît du peintre, navet =peinture horrible, cro-queton =cRoquis.

For example, professionalism is used in the speech of printers: cul-de-lampe - a graphic decoration at the end of a book, moustache - an ending with a thickening in the middle. Professionalisms are characterized by significant differentiation in the designation of special concepts, tools and means of production, the names of objects, actions, and so on. For example, in meteorology, in accordance with the distinguishable types of snowflakes, there are several of their names: astérique- asterisk , aiguille- needle, hérisson- hedgehog, lame- plate.

Professionalisms are either created anew with the use of original or borrowed word-building means according to general language models, or (which is observed very often) are the result of a rethinking of general literary words. According to the method of education, we can distinguish:
1) proper lexical professionalisms that arise as new, special names. For example, in this way the names of various types of planer arose in the speech of carpenters and joiners. : moulure- kalevka, enlive-carry- zenzubel and others;

2) lexico-semantic professionalisms that arise in the process of developing a new meaning of the word and its rethinking. This is how, for example, the professional meanings of words in the speech of printers arose: sapins - Christmas trees or oreilles - paws - a kind of quotation marks; in the speech of hunters, professional names of animal tails are distinguished: in a wolf - byche, at the fox - tube, at the beaver - pelle, at the hare - fleur, faisceau etc.;
3) lexical and derivational professionalisms, which include words like a spare wheel - a spare mechanism, part of something; glavrezh - the main director, etc., in which either a suffix is used, or a way of adding words, etc.

4) One of the ways to form professionalisms is compression: when a word is eliminated from a compound name that conveys its functional and semantic meaning to the remaining word, complicating its content. hallmark such names are brevity and semantic capacity (cf .: hydraulic brake drive system - hydraulique).

Professionalisms can be grouped according to the sphere of their use: in the speech of athletes, miners, doctors, hunters, fishermen, etc. Technicisms are distinguished into a special group - highly specialized names used in the field of technology. They are characterized by great detail in the designation of special concepts, tools, production processes, material. So, horse breeders distinguish horses by purpose: de trait- harness, de selle- riding, de bvt- pack, and the first in harness: limonier- root, de renfort- attached; in the speech of carpenters and joiners, the planer planing tool has varieties: varlope- jointer, Rilard- sherhebel. In professional speech, logs and boards are distinguished by size, shape and are called: bois carry- beam, dose- croaker, etc.

Professionalisms often have expression, which brings them closer to jargon. So bus drivers, truck drivers, cars the steering wheel is called a steering wheel, printers the sign adopted on the letter - quotation marks, according to their appearance, are figuratively called Christmas trees (""), paws (""), the general headline in the newspaper is a hat.

A variety of professionalisms are professional jargons that are not capable of acquiring a normative character, and their conventionality is clearly felt by the speakers. It has a reduced expressive coloring and is used only in the oral speech of people of the same profession. For example, engineers jokingly call a self-recording device " cabard”- “sneaker”. Sometimes slang professionalisms pass into the national language, while remaining stylistically reduced; For example, avoir le trace"to be afraid" of theatrical jargon or barbouiller "smear" from the jargon of artists. Professional jargon words, as a rule, have neutral, non-colloquial synonyms that have an exact terminological meaning.

Professional vocabulary includes words containing semes of disapproval, neglect, contempt: tubercle - senior duty officer, pile on marriage, turning pale, etc., which bring them closer to jargon. Professionalisms bordering on jargon are used as an effective method of speech contrast. Such professional names are associated with the communicative process in labor activity. Imagery is a characteristic feature of professionalism in all areas of production. Uncodified professional vocabulary is outside the literary norm, therefore, like colloquial or slang words, it is usually quoted in the text. But now the norm has become freer, quotation marks are not always used to highlight professionalism.

In works of art, as well as in newspaper and magazine texts, professionalisms, as a rule, perform a nominative function, and also serve as a figurative and expressive means. Separate professionalisms, often with a reduced stylistic sound, become part of the commonly used vocabulary: travail par saccades- assault. In fiction, professionalisms are used by writers with a specific stylistic goal: as a characterological tool in describing the lives of people associated with any kind of production.

Covering the life of society, newspapers cannot but touch upon the scientific and vocational side. In materials of this orientation, vocabulary is used that constitutes the sublanguage of the national language, "its subsystem, which includes special words that are necessary only for this profession." Moreover, the more complex the purposeful activity of people, the more isolated from the common language is their special language, or sublanguage, so the use of special vocabulary in the texts of newspaper publications requires careful selection and a deliberate approach to it. The introduction of professionalism into the text as a modeling function is used not only in the speech characteristics of the characters, but also in the author's speech of the journalist. This technique allows you to show the author's involvement in the problem he writes about, his competence in this area. Text that includes professionalisms becomes like oral speech. This allows the reader to feel like a participant in the events, to delve deeper into their essence. A professional name in a newspaper text is used to stylize the text, i.e. bring it as close as possible to the reality of that professional and industrial sphere of human activity that the author writes about, thus ensuring realism. Therefore, professionally oriented words are often found in interviews, where they create the speech characteristics of the characters. The unedited text should reflect the reality of live speech, and professionalism only emphasizes its situational nature.

3.2 Scope of use of professional vocabulary

As a product of practice, professionalism makes speech concrete and easily assimilated not only by ordinary representatives of a particular industry, but by a wide range of people in contact with this environment. It is preferred to a term that gives a scientific generalized, often with the use of foreign roots, the name of objects, phenomena, actions. Professional names allow you to quickly and easily get acquainted with the production, and the emotionality of professionalism makes this process interesting. These qualities of professionalism become necessary for journalists who seek to draw the attention of the mass reader to a certain professional area, to the problems in it.

In the literary language, narrow professional words usually do not receive wide distribution, that is, the scope of their use remains limited. Most often, this is the colloquial speech of representatives of a particular profession, since professionalisms are semi-official names (and this is one of their differences from terms), fixed in the language of a particular profession. Sometimes they are sort of informal synonyms for special names. Often they are reflected in dictionaries, but always marked “professional”.

4. Naturalism as a literary movement in 19th-century France

4.1 Origins and justification of naturalism as a trend in art

naturalism (fr. Nnaturalisme from lat. Nnaturalis- “natural, natural”) - a late stage in the development of realism (or positivism) in the literature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Naturalism is also called the artistic method, which is characterized by the desire for external plausibility of details, for the depiction of single phenomena - without generalizations and typification.

The term "naturalism" as applied to literature was used as early as at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, as a designation of the stylistic trend characteristic of many samples of the so-called "petty-bourgeois drama", which became widespread in the second half of the 18th century. So, Friedrich Schiller understood naturalism as “imitative reproduction of reality” - an interest in small everyday details (in particular, in the dramas of A.V. Iffland), designed to create an “illusion of reality” on the stage. "Petty-bourgeois drama", in turn, was closely associated with the philosophical naturalism of the Enlightenment. Naturalism took shape as an independent artistic movement only in the second half of the 19th century.

The philosophical premises of naturalism are associated with positivism, especially with the theories of O. Comte on the "biological" study of society and the identification of certain stages in its development (just like in the development of a living organism). The likening of a work of art to a scientific treatise has led to the fact that the main value for naturalists in a literary work has become cognitive, information that can be obtained from it about people and society. The act of aesthetic pleasure was equated with the act of knowledge. At the same time, the writer, as a scientist, did not include his own ideas and beliefs in the work. In literature, the forerunners of naturalism can be called Chanfleury, L.E. Duranty, G. Flaubert.

The writers strove for the most dispassionate and objective reproduction of reality by the methods of literary "recording", for the transformation of novels into a "human document" about the state of society in a certain place and time. The text was intended to be as accurate a "splinter" of reality as a photograph. The publication of many works was accompanied by scandals, since naturalists did not hesitate to frankly record the life of dirty slums, haunts and brothels - those places that were not accepted in earlier literature.

A person and his actions were understood as conditioned by physiological nature, heredity and environment - social conditions, everyday and material environment. Naturalism arose under the influence of the rapid development of the natural sciences and can be seen as the transfer of scientific methods of observation and analysis to the field artistic creativity. In creating their works, naturalist writers relied on a thorough study of the life, working conditions and the very work of their heroes, technologies and tools, clinical reports, and medical works. The natural science explanation of any human actions by the action of "blood and nerves" (Zola's expression) led naturalists to doubt that a person has free will.

Main features of naturalism :

1) Naturalism - frank, detailed description previously forbidden, cruel, disgusting, base or intimate aspects of life. This trait was inherited from naturalists by many writers of the 20th century, and it was in the 20th century that it reached its limit, when there are absolutely no prohibitions for writers.

2) The idea of literature as scientific research life.

3) Biologism - an explanation of all social and spiritual phenomena, primarily human character traits, by biological, physiological causes. Naturalists considered man to be primarily a biological being, an animal, an organism. This is the same vulgar materialism that Bazarov preached. Naturalists believed that humans do not have free will. All actions are conditioned, firstly, by innate, hereditary character traits, temperament, and secondly, by the external environment to which the human temperament adapts. Of course, reducing everything only to physiology is stupidity, but the great merit of naturalists was that for the first time in the analysis of human behavior they began to take into account such an important factor as heredity, which they had not taken into account at all before, explaining everything only by the influence of the external environment. A person is already born with a certain set of traits, abilities and shortcomings that determine his life. I personally am very grateful to them for understanding this, maybe I am also a bit of a naturalist. Naturalists also vividly and convincingly showed how strong the animal biological principle is in people.

Terminological vocabulary examples. The place of terminological vocabulary in modern Russian. How many special words are allowed

Special vocabulary: terms

Special terms

Pleonasm of terms

How many special words are allowed?

Expansion of terms

Special vocabulary: professionalisms

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