Start of the Austro-German offensive. Fall of Belgrade
During September 1915, in order to mislead the Serbian command, German artillery fired several times on the Serbian banks of the Danube and Sava. On October 5-6, 1915, actual artillery preparation by the Mackensen armies began to prepare the crossing. On October 7, the Austro-German troops, with the support of the Danube Flotilla, began the crossing. From Bosnia, Austro-Hungarian troops attacked Montenegro, pinning down its army so that it could not, as during the 1914 campaign of the year, attack the flank of the Austro-German army.
The crossing of the Austro-German troops near Belgrade turned out to be lengthy and replete with obstacles, they had to take a well-fortified and favorable for defense, in its natural position, a bridgehead. The crossing was hampered by the need to clear the fairways of both rivers from minefields. In addition, a hurricane began that lasted more than a week. He scattered and damaged some of the ships and in some places cut off the landed vanguard from the main forces. However, the forward units were so strengthened that they withstood Serbian counterattacks without the support of the main forces. An important role in the success of the Austro-German waxes was played by heavy artillery, which suppressed most of the Serbian artillery and destroyed the fortifications. The ships of the Danube Flotilla also played an important role in the crossing, supporting the landing troops with fire, suppressing the Serbian batteries. The Austro-German troops used searchlights that helped sweep mines at night, blind the enemy's searchlights, illuminated targets for artillery and covered the crossing troops with a light curtain.
Transport of troops across the Danube
The plan of operations provided for the transition of the Austro-German through the Drina, Sava and Danube. At the same time, the 3rd Army had to cross its right flank, with a force of one and a half divisions, which was joined by the Bosnian Visegrad group, overcoming the knee formed by the Drina and Sava in Machva, and also crossing the Sava with the help of steam ferries under the cover of fire monitors and armed steamers Danube flotilla. With its center (three divisions of the Austro-Hungarian 14th Corps), the 3rd Army was supposed to cross the Sava near Progara on the night of October 7 by ferries and across a military bridge under the cover of the ships of the Danube Flotilla. On October 7, the troops of the 14th corps were to build a pontoon bridge at Bolevtsy. On the left flank, the 26th Austro-Hungarian Division was to cross the Sava at Ostruzhnica to distract the Serbs, and the 22nd German Reserve Corps was to force the Sava above the Big Gypsy Island in order to cover the Serbian capital from the southwest. German troops were to participate in the capture of Belgrade and join up with the 8th Austro-Hungarian corps, advancing from Zemlin. The Austro-Hungarian Danube Flotilla under the command of Captain 1st Rank Karl Lucich was to play an important role in the beginning of the operation.
The German 11th Army was to cross the Danube simultaneously in three columns: the 10th Reserve Corps was advancing at Palanca and Bazias on Ram; at Dunadombo - the 4th reserve corps across the Danube island of Temesziget to Kostolaki, and from Kevevar the 3rd reserve corps in the direction of the old Turkish fortress of Semendria. Down the river near Orsova, the Austrian group of General Fühlonn was supposed to operate. The Orsovskaya group performed mainly a demonstrative task. She was supposed to misinform and pin down the Serbian troops. Then she had to establish contact with the Bulgarians and, together with the 1st Bulgarian Army, occupy the protrusion of Serbian territory in the Danube bend at Kladovo in order to ensure free navigation along the Danube.
Field Marshal August von Mackensen
The offensive of the 3rd Austro-Hungarian Army. The Kövess army spent five days on the crossing, as the Serbian army stubbornly defended its capital. The Austro-German artillery conducted a powerful artillery barrage. So, at noon on October 6, the heavy artillery of the 8th Austro-Hungarian corps began preparing the crossing with a four-hour hurricane fire from 70 heavy and medium and 90 light guns. This was followed by shrapnel fire to suppress attempts to rebuild Serb batteries.
The 8th Austrian Corps had to cover the longest route by water, about 4 km, from the Zemlin region to Belgrade. His headquarters made a planning error and the first echelon of the 59th Infantry Division instead of the time scheduled for landing at 2 hours 50 minutes. approached the Serbian coast at 4 o'clock. And the artillery preparation ended according to plan at exactly 2 o'clock. 50 minutes Therefore, the Austrian units had to land without artillery support. As a result, and also because of the strong resistance of the Serbs, the crossing was difficult. In addition, the rising water in the rivers flooded the islands at the mouth of the river. Sava and low-lying areas of the Danube coast, which worsened the landing conditions and did not allow the telegraph cable to be delivered to the Serbian coast. The landing vanguard was left without communication and could not report the need for artillery support. This led to the fact that the forward shock battalions suffered significant casualties in men and materiel.
Only on October 9 did the steamers approach and, following the troops of the 59th Infantry Division, transported the 57th Infantry Division, which allowed the Austro-German troops to eventually capture Belgrade. Shock groups of the Austro-Hungarian troops rushed from the north into the city and the fortress of Belgrade, took the citadel and Vracharskie heights.
The 22nd German Reserve Corps reached the Sava River on the evening of October 6. Serbian troops were on the heights of Banovo, which so rose above the opposite bank that approaching the river during the day along the low and very swampy left bank of the river. Sava was extremely difficult. Therefore, the troops began to cross the river at night. Behind small islands off the Austrian coast, pontoons brought by pioneers (sappers) were hidden in advance, 10-15 pieces for each regiment crossing. The landing of troops on the pontoons began after 2 o'clock. nights of October 7. Within 15-20 minutes. the first echelons have already landed on the Serbian coast and on the Gypsy island. The rest of the troops followed. While the troops were crossing at night, the losses of the German troops were small, but at dawn the Serbian artillery intensified and they greatly increased. Having lost up to two-thirds of the pontoons, the German troops at about 8:00. in the morning, the crossing was suspended.
The advanced units (approximately one battalion per regiment) had to withstand Serbian counterattacks all day. The Germans and Austrians were saved by the fact that the main forces of the Serbian army had not yet managed to regroup from the Bulgarian direction. The crossing was resumed only in the evening, but with greater losses than on the first day. On October 8, the right-flank 208th reserve regiment occupied the first line of the Serbian position and went into the rear of the Serbs defending the Gypsy Island, which forced them to hastily retreat. As a result, the 207th Infantry Regiment was able to capture the serviceable Serbian bridge connecting the Gypsy Island with the coast. This made the crossing easier. Then the German troops went to storm the steep Banovski heights. A few hours later, thanks to the strong support of heavy artillery, the German troops broke the resistance of the Serbs.
Thanks to this success, on October 9, the 43rd German reserve division took the suburb of Belgrade - Topcidere. On the same day, after heavy street fighting, Austrian troops took Belgrade. Defending the city, about 5 thousand Serbs were killed. Many residents of the capital and people from other places, remembering the atrocities of the past Austro-Hungarian invasion, when civilians did not stand on ceremony, robbed, raped and killed, left their homes and joined the retreating army. The catastrophe began. The country was crumbling before our eyes.
Thus, on the third day of the operation, the Austro-German troops took the Serbian capital - Belgrade. However, the crossing at Belgrade was delayed and was completed instead of one in three days. The wrong calculation of the crossing by the Austro-German command could turn the whole enterprise into failure, if not for the persistence of the Germans, who broke the resistance of the Serbs with great losses, as well as the weakness of the Serbian army in the Belgrade direction and the complete superiority of the Austro-German troops in heavy artillery.
Source: Korsun N. Balkan Front of the World War 1914-1918.
The offensive of the 11th German army. The crossing of the 11th German army was prepared already in the spring and summer of 1915. Austrian sappers conducted reconnaissance of the river, completed fortification of positions on their bank, fixed roads and bridges. Reconnaissance revealed that the section from the mouth of the river is more convenient for crossing. Karas to Bazias, which allowed a covert concentration of troops and watercraft. The crossing was planned at once in four places: the mouth of the river. Karasa, Snake Island, the mouth of the river. Nera and Bazias. It was planned to build a bridge using the Serpent Island.
All these places were carefully studied and prepared for the crossing, taking into account weather conditions, the state of the water level and the likely actions of the Serbian troops. The estuaries of the Karas and Nera rivers were cleared of sediments and mines, and their fairway was deepened by blasting operations so that boats and pontoons could pass there. In addition, the engineering services prepared a dense network of roads in the places of the initial location of the troops, put up signs for the troops and set up observation posts. A feature of the landing of troops in this sector was a hurricane, which interrupted regular navigation for several days and interfered with sweeping operations.
Before the start of the operation, Austrian sappers raised eight barges that sank beyond the island of Ponyavica, and a steamer sunk by Serb artillery at St. Moldova. With great effort, the barges were raised and fixed, placing them on the coast of the island of Ponyavica under the cover of forest and bushes. The steamer was also raised and transported to the island of Ponyavica, covered with trees. In addition, at night, the Germans threw about 100 half-pontons, which they lowered along the river. Karasu to its mouth, and then along the river. Danube to the Snake Island, where they were dragged ashore and sheltered. The ferry was also provided by Austrian rowing ships, divisional and hull German bridge ferries.
The immediate goal of the German troops after the crossing was the capture of the Goritsy area and the Orlyak massif (south of Goritsa), and then the Klitsevan, Zaton'e line. The advanced troops were carrying ammunition for five days, provisions for six days, and large reserves of engineering equipment. This was a very reasonable decision, since the unleashing elements led to a break in the crossing.
Thus, the Austrians and Germans carefully prepared for the crossing of the water barrier. At the same time, all these preparations were carried out so secretly that the crossing on October 7 was unexpected for the Serbs.
On October 6, 1915, German artillery began shelling Serbian positions and by the morning of October 7, the fire was brought to the level of a hurricane. Despite the powerful fire of almost 40 batteries, which continued until the 10th Corps advance echelon, advancing from the Serpent Island, landed, the Serbs, after the Germans had transferred artillery fire inland, put up strong resistance at Ram. By the evening of October 7, two regiments of the 103rd Infantry Division were transported.
Then the German troops had to go through difficult days. On October 8 and 9 it was pouring rain, which turned into a storm. The hurricane continued until October 17. At this time, all means of crossing, except for the steamer, were inactive. A number of watercraft were damaged by the hurricane wind. At the same time, the Serbs were firing heavy artillery fire, and launched a counterattack, trying to throw the Germans into the river. With great difficulty, the steamer completed the transfer of the troops of the 103rd division. Only additional stocks of ammunition, food and various equipment allowed the Germans to survive. The storm ended only on October 17 and the remaining troops of the 10th German Corps were transferred to the other side. On October 21, the Germans built two bridges.
Thus, careful preparation of the operation allowed the 11th German army to successfully cross the river, despite the 8-day hurricane. The Germans, with the help of powerful crossing means, without building a bridge, transferred such large and well-equipped units that they were able to repel all enemy counterattacks and hold out until the main forces approached.
Further offensive by Mackensen's troops
The Serbian command began regrouping forces from the Bulgarian direction to the north with the goal of creating a strong defense on the path of the Austro-German troops. Austro-German troops, which delayed the crossing more than planned, by October 18 were able to advance on the southern bank of the river. The Danube is only 10 km away. The 19th Austro-Hungarian Corps, advancing in the Bosnian direction, overcoming stubborn resistance from the Montenegrin army, also advanced slowly.
On October 21, the vanguards of Mackensen's armies were on the Ripan, Kaliste line, and the Austro-Hungarian troops, which crossed the Lower Drina, reached Sabac. The offensive of the Austro-German troops proceeded with great difficulty, especially due to the lack of communication lines. The existing roads were damaged by autumn rains. The Austro-German troops were no longer delayed by the resistance of the Serbian troops, but by the dirt and roads clogged with people.
It was especially difficult for the 3rd Austro-Hungarian army of Kövess, which was worse than the 11th army, overcoming the resistance of the Serbs. The German High Command suggested that the Austrians strengthen the 3rd Army at the expense of troops from the Italian front. However, the Austrians were afraid of a new offensive by the Italian army and refused to the Germans. Indeed, on October 18, the third offensive of the Italian army began (the third battle of the Isonzo). However, the Italians were unable to help Serbia. All the attacks of the Italian divisions crashed against the powerful defenses of the Austrian army. The Austrians were ready for an enemy attack. The Italians laid down many soldiers, but made little progress. In November, the Italian army launched a fourth offensive against the Isonzo. Fierce fighting continued until December, all attempts by the Italian army were unsuccessful. To break through the strong Austrian defense, which took place in the mountainous terrain, the Italians had disastrously little heavy artillery.
On the left flank of the Austro-German Army Group Mackensen, the situation was also difficult. The weak Austrian group of Fyulonn, located at Orsova, failed to cross the Danube at the beginning of the operation. As a result, the Austrians were not able to immediately provide a junction between the 11th German and 1st Bulgarian armies, and the transportation of various supplies and materials along the Danube to Bulgaria. And the Bulgarian army was dependent on supplies from Austria and Germany.
Only on October 23, the Austrians in the area of \u200b\u200bthe city of Orsov were able to organize a powerful artillery barrage, with the participation of 420-mm guns. Hurricane artillery fire destroyed the Serbian fortifications. Under the cover of strong artillery and machine-gun fire (the width of the Danube near Orsova made it possible to conduct effective machine-gun fire on the other bank), the Austrian troops were able to force the river and gain a foothold. After the arrival of reinforcements, the Austrians continued their offensive and captured the necessary bridgehead. Thus, with the help of strong artillery and machine-gun fire, the Austro-Hungarian group Fyulonna was able to break the resistance of the Serbian troops and force the Danube.
Bulgaria enters the war
On October 15, Bulgarian troops crossed the Serbian border. At first, the Bulgarian troops met fierce resistance from the Serbs and advanced rather slowly. Bulgarians for a long time unsuccessfully attacked the well-fortified positions of the Serbian army on the river. Timoka and north of Pirot. But on the left flank, Bulgarian troops were able to raid the Vranja station, where they destroyed the railway and telegraph office, cutting off Serbia's communications with the Allied forces in Thessaloniki.
By October 21, the 1st Bulgarian Army continued to storm Serbian positions. The right wing and center of the Bulgarian army was located on the river. Timok between Zaychar and Knyazhevats, and the left wing fought at Pirot. Only on October 25 did the Bulgarian troops force the Serbs to withdraw beyond Timok. The 2nd Bulgarian Army easily reached the Vranja and Kumanov area, and intercepted the river with its left flank. Vardar near Veles. Thus, the Bulgarian troops interrupted the connection between the Serbian army and the allied expeditionary corps in Thessaloniki. This jeopardized the coverage of the main body of the Serb army.
To be continued…
In the decade between 1515 and 1525, the “Turkish Front” and the “Wars of Faith” that began after the Reformation movement began to gain more importance for Europe. From the same time, large-scale colonial conquests began in America and Asia. Firearms have long ceased to be exotic in the Old World, and the colonialists have to face them in Asia. At the same time, in America, artillery is a significant trump card for the Spaniards in the wars with the Indian states.
New realities
In 1515, the military-political bond between the African Maghreb and the Ottoman Sultanate began, which finally ended in the absorption of North Africa by the Turks. The Muslim naval commanders, the brothers Oruch (Aruj) and Khizir (Hayreddin), called the "brothers of Barbarossa" by the Europeans, play a significant role in these events. In 1516, Oruch staged a coup in the Algerian Sultanate with the help of an Ottoman detachment armed with firearms, which, as Crowley notes, is a complete likeness of European colonial conquests in Asia and America. Firearms determine the success of the Ottoman Sultanate's capture of Syria (1516) and Egypt (1517).
The Reformation movement, begun by Martin Luther in 1517, by 1522 found support from a number of German rulers, primarily from the Saxon Elector. Religious is added to the usual formal causes of feudal strife, as in the Württemberg War of 1519 and the German wars of 1522-1523. The Reformation became the pretext for a whole series of destructive wars of the 16th – 17th centuries.
Major global trade routes of the Spanish (white) and Portuguese (blue). Right - the European possessions of Charles V after his election as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (shaded areas)
The great invaders of the previous decade in 1515-1519 were replaced by new ones - the French king Francis I and the grandson of Maximilian Karl Habsburg. Francis fails in the imperial election, and Charles - as the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and as the Spanish King Charles I - as a result of the intricacies of feudal inheritance, gets Spain, Flanders and almost all of Germany under his arm (in 1521, however, Charles gives his brother Ferdinand part of the German possessions).
In 1521, a series of wars between the Habsburgs and Valois began. King Francis and Emperor Charles are trying to seize rich Northern Italy and Flanders, as well as other disputed areas of Europe from each other. Popes and other great princes support one side or the other.
Europeans in Africa, Asia and America by 1521
Colonial conquests in 16th century Asia are not going smoothly for Europeans. The Portuguese fail in the siege of Aden (1513), moreover, they storm the fortress without using siege artillery, and the defenders, on the contrary, repel the assault with cannon fire. In 1517, the capture of Aden also fails. Another key port in the Red Sea, Jeddah (Jeddah), was already part of the Ottoman Sultanate in 1517, and an attempt by the Portuguese to capture it from the sea was repulsed by a Turkish squadron.
The city of Goa in India, when captured by the Portuguese in 1510, has 3 thousand units of firearms in warehouses. The Sultan of Malacca sets up numerous cast bronze artillery against the Portuguese, although technically it is less perfect than the Portuguese. This is also true of the tactics of using firearms. In this regard, Black notes that one should not exaggerate the degree of Portuguese domination in Asia, at least in the 16th century.
The affairs of Europeans in North Africa are not going very well. The Maghreb countries turn out to be a serious adversary, having at that time military equipment at the European level, in particular, firearms. The Spanish expedition against Oruch Barbarossa (1517) is defeated. Both Spanish attempts to capture Algeria (in 1519 and 1523) end in disastrous failures. By the 1530s, Spanish possessions in North Africa were just a chain of coastal fortresses from Melilla to Tripoli and small territories around them. The Algerian possessions of the Spaniards are reduced to the island fortress of Peñon near Algeria. In Portuguese hands is the same chain of strongholds along the Atlantic coast of Morocco.
Portuguese fort in Calcutta in the early 16th century. Cannons are exactly what allows such strongholds to exist.
However, colonial conquests in mainland America (since 1519) are much more successful. Local peoples do not have firearms and do not know how to resist them, so that even small contingents of Spaniards gain a significant one-sided advantage. In the fall of 1519, the Spaniards equip Magellan's round-the-world expedition, the main goal of which is to explore the western route to Asian booty, which until then is completely controlled by the Portuguese.
Württemberg War of 1519
The essence of the events of the Württemberg campaign (or capture) of 1519 is that the Swabian League takes the Duchy of Württemberg from the local Duke Ulrich, who is assisted by the Swiss.
The siege on a fragment of an engraving by Burgkmayr the Elder (1st quarter of the 16th century). The bombardment is carried out from an elevation in order to add range to the weapons. If there is no convenient natural elevation, a cavalier is constructed. Both great cannons laid on platforms and siege weapons on wheeled carriages are used. British Museum no. 1849,1031.250
During the siege in April of Worndorf by a detachment of allies under the command of Frundsberg, only a shelling from a scarf, summed up and installed at night, forces the city to surrender. During the siege of Markgroningen by the Frundsberg detachment and the artillery of Zeichmeister Michael Ott, artillery fire from two redoubts begins on May 18. May 19 summed up "One great Württemberg cannon named" Brother " ["D" Bruder "], and two mortars ".
The next day, the besiegers have to remove three guns. Two of them, "Dragon" ["Drach"] from Innsbruck and a double card, "Cracked"third, the "Jester" ["Narr"] from Ulm exploded, killing two of the service men and wounding the master gunner. The guns were replaced by the Württemberg "Strauß", "Drach" and "Hirsch", and on the same day a large breach was made in the wall. On May 21 the besiegers erected and armed with kartuns the third redoubt. In a ravine nearby, three mortars are installed, which fire "Stones" (fraction?) and "Fire shells".
The breach is kept under fire day and night. Frundsberg pays half a guilder to every shooter who fired from the anvil for half a day. By May 23, the return fire of the fortress weakens, and the breach is so widened that it can be entered "Shoulder to shoulder 25 soldiers." On May 25, the fortress surrenders.
On October 3, at a review near Göppingen, the allied army numbers 9 thousand foot and 1.2 thousand cavalry. It contains 6 breach and 32 field guns, as well as 3 mortars. In a further off-road hike, only those tools are taken "Who can shoot from the wheels" - 3 zingerins, 1 nachtigall, 14 hoses, 9 falconets, 1 "Fire squeak"... Exclusively for the protection of the eight hundred "Passerers" - sappers walking ahead, of which 200 are felling trees, and the rest are paving the way, 100 double hooks on the machines and 200 shooters are allocated, of which "One shoots, and the second needs to be worn"... There are no big battles or significant sieges in this war anymore.
Siege of Tenochtitlan (1521)
The preparation of the Spaniards for the siege of the island capital of the Aztecs Tenochtitlan on the salt lake Teshkoko included the capture of coastal city-states friendly to Tenochtitlan (spring 1521) and the conclusion of an alliance with the enemies of Tenochtitlan, primarily Teshkoko (from the beginning of 1521). By the end of April 1521, Tenochtitlan was isolated.
Reconstruction of the plan of Lake Teshkoko and cities on its islands and shores. Scheme of the island, dams and bridges. The size of the island is approximately 3 × 1.5 km
When landing at Vera Cruz (1519), Cortez's detachment of 500 people carries with them 14 cannons (10 bronze lungs, 4 falconets) and has hand firearms. For comparison, the detachment of Pizarro in 1531 for 168 people has 4 cannons. In the spring of 1521, Cortes receives reinforcements, and his Spanish detachment numbers 86 cavalry and more than 800 footmen, including 118 crossbowmen and riflemen. It has 3 siege iron and 15 light bronze cannons.
For the siege of the island capital of the Aztecs, the Spaniards build 13 makeshift gunboats ("bergantines"), which are supplied with light weapons and operate from the city of Teshkoko. On the side of the Spaniards, there is an army of many thousands of Tlaxcaltans - the worst enemies of the Tenochtitlans. The besiegers are supplied without hindrance.
Bronze breech-loading falconet of the early 16th century on a ship installation. Allegedly one of those that Cortez had. Arantegui y Sanz, sheet 14
In the second week of May 1521, the actual siege of Tenochtitlan begins. A smallpox epidemic was raging in the city at this time, which in the spring of 1521 was brought with a detachment from Spain. Despite all this, the Aztecs, under the command of Kuatemok, nephew of Montezuma (Moctezuma), defend the city for three and a half months.
To break the resistance of the defenders, the Spaniards destroy the city as they advance. The victims of battle and disease are in the tens of thousands. After the final defeat of the defenders (the capture of Kuatemok on August 13), it takes three days to remove the surviving population from the city.
The siege of Tenochtitlan in a painting from the second half of the 17th century. The Spaniards do everything, Indian allies are hardly noticeable
In the colonial mythology of the 19th-20th centuries, the siege of Tenochtitlan is presented as one of the first successful confrontations between "a handful of cultured white people armed with guns and cannons" and "innumerable crowds of savages with spears and bows." Yet, as it is estimated today, firearms play far from a decisive role in the fall of the Aztec empire. Much more essential to Spanish success is the presence of numerous and reliable local allies.
Siege of Mezieres (1521)
During the war of Valois and the Habsburgs of 1521-1526, the city of Mezieres in northeastern France, after the surrender of nearby Mouzon, turns out to be the only obstacle on the way of the 40-thousandth imperial army to rich Champagne. Since the city's fortifications are old and weak, and there are no food supplies, no military supplies, no strong garrison, it is believed that it is impossible to hold it. Therefore, the royal council of war proposes to destroy the fortifications and retreat inland, destroying and burning everything behind them.
Knight Bayard is volunteered to lead the defense of Mezieres. The king immediately appoints him as his viceroy (lieutenant general) and grants all kinds of powers. However, Bayard receives little troops - from 2 to 3 thousand (2 detachments of a hundred gendarmes at arms and about 2 thousand infantry), including the remnants of the Mouzon garrison, an inexperienced and unstable contingent.
Mezieres and his fortifications in 17th century watercolor. "Burgundy Gate" on the right. Scale bar - 300 French fathoms (about 600 meters)
Old Mezieres is located in a bend of the Meuse (Meuse), 200 fathoms wide (about 400 meters). The neck of the bend is called "Burgundy Gate". First of all, Bayard "removes all unnecessary mouths from the city" and destroys the bridge over the Meuse. Gathering his detachment and the Mesieres burghers, Bayard makes them swear not to surrender the city and fight to the death. " And if, de, there is not enough food, we will eat the horses, and then ", he adds "With fun, something in his custom", - "We'll pickle and eat our servants".
Further, Bayard organizes round-the-clock work to repair the fortifications. He carries stones and digs the ground himself. Following his example, all noble men allegedly also work as sappers and workers. What is more important, perhaps, in payment for the work Bayard invests three thousand ecu of his own funds.
On August 30, the imperial army of the Count of Nassau and Franz von Sickingen encircles the city on both sides. Sickingen with 15 thousand occupies the "Burgundy Gate". The Earl of Nassau with 20 thousand is located across the river. The Imperials have over a hundred guns, including large bombards.
Imperial commanders offer Bayard to surrender the city on honorable terms and "As wise to act as the commander in Mouzon", for, de, very much they respect him, Bayard, valor and honor. And he won't be able to keep such weak fortifications with such weak forces.
Bayard "Answers with a smile and without thinking"that he is flattered by the goodwill of Messrs. Nassau and Sickingen, with whom he does not even know how he should, but the king entrusted him with this fortress. And, with God's help, kind gentlemen will get tired of besieging the city before he, Bayard, gets tired of defending it. And he himself will leave the city only over the bridge of the bodies of enemies.
After the very first volleys of siege batteries, part of the garrison deserts (historians attribute this to the demoralized Muzonites), "Who is through the gate, and who is coming down from the wall"... But Bayard supposedly even "I'm glad that I got rid of cowards unworthy to share the honor of glorious defense".
In less than four days the besiegers are released through the city "More than five thousand" nuclei and bombs. Two large holes have been made in the walls. The artillery of the defenders is weak, but Bayard is an experienced warlord, and time after time he arranges successful sorties. After a month of siege, supplies run out, and dysentery breaks out in the city. Particularly harmful are the defenders of the Sickingen battery, who fire the strongest from the hills to the south-west of the city.
Bayard, knowing about the troubles between the two imperial commanders, draws up a letter, supposedly addressed to one of the Flemish nobles, and arranges it so that it goes to Sickingen. In the letter, he writes about 12 thousand Swiss and four hundred men at arms who are allegedly going to help Mezieres, who will attack the Sickingen camp within 24 hours. Moreover, the Count of Nassau, de, will not give him help, and he, Bayard, is well aware of this.
The mutual mistrust of Nassau and Sickingen leads to the fact that Sickingen removes the camp and withdraws his corps across the river, which almost leads to a battle with the Nassau corps. The defenders, on the other hand, receive a thousand soldiers and a certain amount of supplies through the path opened from the side of the "Burgundy gates". The imperial warlords are losing hope of starving out the city.
Meanwhile, King Francis manages to gather troops. After less than six weeks, the siege of Mezieres is lifted, and the Imperial army retreats through Picardy, destroying and burning everything in its path. Bayard himself was richly and honorably awarded by the king, and the day of the lifting of the siege (September 27) becomes the city festival of Mezieres, celebrated before the Revolution and after the Restoration.
The siege, in addition to its obvious significance for France in 1521, is notable for the success of the small defenders against the vastly superior forces, well armed with artillery, and the participation that the famous "knight without fear or reproach" Bayard takes in it.
Siege of Belgrade (1521)
The first European campaign of conquest of the young Sultan Suleiman, carried out under his personal leadership, was directed against the Hungarian king Louis II. Serbia and its capital, Belgrade (Hungarian Nandorfehervar), which by that time had already been in the Turkish siege several times, were under the rule of the Hungarians, but each time it stood.
Scheme of the city and fortress of Belgrade in 1888. Two fortifications are clearly visible, the lower and the upper, the island of Bolshoy Voenny (although in the 16th century it could have slightly different outlines) and the place where Zemlin (Zemun) stood. Many medieval images show Belgrade from the far (northern) bank of the Danube
The Turkish poet Mahremi, praising the valor of his sultan, extols the might of the Belgrade fortress. Such a castle, according to him, has not been seen since the time of Adam. He is protected "Two towers, nine planets, and the angels protect him", and was probably built not by a man, but by a genie. It is known, however, that the Hungarian kingdom at this time suffers serious financial difficulties, its army does not receive a salary. The Belgrade fortress has almost no guns and military supplies, and its garrison numbers only about 700 people.
Suleiman embarks on a Belgrade campaign from Constantinople on February 19, 1521 at the head of an army numbering 15 thousand people, 300 guns [apparently of all calibers] and 40 galleys. In Sofia, a huge baggage train joins the army. Separate Ottoman corps are sent to Sabac and Transylvania (cavalry), one to Zemlin and Belgrade, and another cavalry corps covers the movement of the main army.
Hungarian nobles do not immediately notice the threat. The Diet in Buda meets at the end of June and announces the gathering of troops in Tolna, all the nobles must send detachments. The Hungarians ask the Pope and the most Christian rulers for help.
Archduke Ferdinand sends 3 thousand soldiers, Polish King Sigismund - 2 thousand footmen and 500 horsemen. The noble class of Bohemia "Shows shameful indifference" to the appeals of the king, and ordinary soldiers prefer, despite the royal prohibition, to be hired by the French king Francis or the emperor Charles - for those the pay is higher than that of the Hungarian Louis. Venice sends 30 thousand ducats to Hungarians. Only a few thousand of the Hungarian troops were gathering in Tolna, and only when Sabac had already fallen and Belgrade was besieged.
The siege of Sabac (Hungarian Bogurdelena) has been led by the corps of Ahmed Pasha, Rumelia's runner-run since June 20. The Sabac defenders are few in number, "No more than a hundred foot and horse" under the leadership of Simon Logodi. By July 7, the walls of the fortress were destroyed, and the Turks were filling the bypass ditch with fascines. The defenders still have the opportunity to leave the castle across the river, but instead they wait for the assault and all die, "Having laid seven hundred Turks"... Logodi himself was taken alive. The severed heads of the defenders of Shabats are displayed along the road along which Sultan Suleiman enters the castle the next day.
July 9 starts "Building a castle on the water" - Pointing a pontoon bridge over the Sava River. It lasts "day and night". Meanwhile, the Zemlin castle on the opposite side of the river from Belgrade was taken by the Grand Vizier Piri Pasha. The garrison of 400 sailors of the Danube flotilla under the command of Markus Skubich was killed, and two more castles (one of them, apparently, Smederevo) were taken by Bali-Beg.
On July 19, the bridge with a length of 1800 cubits (over 1 km) is ready, but rough water tears it off, and the bridge can only be restored on July 27. By August 1, the Sultan's army crosses the Sava and joins up with the Piri Pasha corps at the walls of Belgrade. On the day of the Sultan's arrival, the Ottoman army was sent to an unprepared assault, repulsed with the loss of 600 people.
The siege of Belgrade in 1521 in a later and not entirely documentary image (apparently, 1540s). View from roughly north; on the right is the far bank of the Sava bend and, below, Voenny Island
Two Serb defectors show that the walls of the fortress are weakest on the side of the confluence of the Sava with the Danube, so that siege batteries are set up on Voenny Island. The bombing of the city begins on 4 August and is very successful. On August 8, the Turks attacked from three sides, but were repulsed with heavy losses. However, after the assault, the Hungarian defenders also number no more than 400 people and retreat to the Upper Castle, where, de, "Reluctantly allowed" and the Serbian part of the garrison (at Hammer, who seems to have little distinction between Serbs and Bulgarians, these are "Thracian (Bulgarian) mercenaries").
The upper castle under the command of Blasius Ola, Ioann Botha and Ioann Morgai [Latinized names] defended itself for three more weeks, repelling more than twenty assaults. Finally "French or Italian apostates" As part of the Ottoman army, they successfully lay and detonate a mine under the main tower bypassing the upper castle, called in the sources "Do not be afraid" or "Multilateral" (meaning "visible from afar").
Belgrade in 1760, after engraving by Zeuter; view from approximately west-northwest. The fortifications had grown greatly by this time, but the old walls and the Upper Castle are visible.
The Hungarian army, gathered in Tolna, numbers only a few thousand people. Without waiting for the arrival of the largest nobleman of Zapolya in Tolna, the governor Batory tries - after the fall of Sabac - to lead the available forces to the castle of Mitrovic, but meets the 17-thousandth corps of the Bosnian pasha and retreats to Titel, from where he watches the Belgrade siege.
Under pressure from the Serbian population of Belgrade and losing hope for the arrival of reinforcements, the garrison of the Upper Castle surrenders on August 29 with the right to free exit. However, the Turks treacherously kill the commanders Olu and Bot, as well as most of the Hungarians of the garrison, and the Serbs of Belgrade are resettled under Constantinople. A settlement with the name Belgrade would subsequently appear there.
The Belgrade fortress receives a garrison of 3 thousand janissaries at 200 "New" tools. To restore the fortifications they send "20 thousand Wallachians"... Sabac Castle gets 20 "New" guns. The fortresses of Kulpenich, Barich, Perkash, Slankamen, Mitrovits, Karlovits, Uylok also fall into Turkish hands, which the Turks partially destroy, depriving them of their military value.
Western European historians lament the reluctance of the mighty West to save the Hungarian stronghold of Christianity. But almost more they blame for the fall of the key stronghold on the Danube "Religious hatred [Orthodox] serbs [to the Hungarian Catholics who rule over them] » and betrayal selected Hungarian aristocrats like Franz Hedervar and Valentin Török.
The first European seizure of Suleiman opens the way for the Turks to the Hungarian plain and brings them within a seasonal reach from the Hungarian capital Buda and imperial Vienna.
The title of the article shows an engraving by Stehr “Two Cannons” (1540s). The approximate content of the accompanying popular poem (not shown in the illustration):
“But Master Jörg stood in a cheerful pose and guides the cannon ... aim at the Turk half a man's height and don't be afraid of undershoot ... you will beat both horses and people completely.”
Sources and Literature:
- Hammond, I. Conquistadors. The history of the Spanish conquests of the 15th – 16th centuries. M., 2002.
- Crowley, R. The empires of the sea: the siege of Malta, the battle of Lepanto, and the contest for the center of the world. Random House, 2008.
- European Warfare 1453-1815 / ed. by J. Black. 1999.
- Guilmartin, J.F. Jr. Gunpowder and Galleys: Changing Technology and Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the Sixteenth Century. United States Naval Institute, 2003. URL: angelfire.com/ga4/guilmartin.com/.
- Hammer-Purgstall, J. von. Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches ... 2te Aufl. Bd. 2. Pesth, 1840. URL: books.google.com/books?id\u003dc49lAAAAcAAJ.
- Heilmann J. Kriegsgeschichte von Bayern, Franken, Pfalz und Schwaben von 1506 bis 1651. Band I. Kriegsgeschichte und Kriegswesen von 1506-1598. München, 1868.
- Kamen, H. Spain's road to empire: the making of a world power, 1492-1763. The Penguin Press, 2002.
- Kupelwieser, L. Die Kampfe Ungarns mit den Osmanen bis zur Schlacht bei Mohacs, 1526. Wien; Leipzig, 1899. URL: archive.org/details/diekampfeungarns00kupe.
- Terrebasse, A. de. Chroniques des preux de France. Histoire de Pierre Terrail, seigneur de Bayart ... Paris, 1828. URL: gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k62279616.
- Wikimedia Commons. URL: commons.wikimedia.org.
- Wikipedia in deutscher Sprache. URL: de.wikipedia.org.
Many people know about the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. But hardly as many will be able to explain why the triumphal march of the Ottoman army after the fall of the capital of Byzantium suddenly stopped. The answer is very simple: the Turkish forces suffered an unexpected and terrifying defeat at the walls of Belgrade in 1456, when the conqueror of Constantinople himself shamefully fled from the battlefield, losing both his army and his military glory. It is about this - little-known now, but which was of great importance then - the battle and will be our story. This battle began on July 4/17.
Lord God! May Your hand overtake all our enemies,
and Thy right hand punish all who hate You!
Let them be thrown into the heat of the scorching heat from your presence,
for our Lord in His wrath will sweep them away, and let the fire consume them!
Our God, take away the fruits of their deeds from the earth,
but destroy their seed from the sons of men!
For our enemies have thought evil against you,
but they conceived plans that may not be fulfilled!
For you will turn them back, and you will direct their arrows into their face!
Ascend, Lord, in Your power, but we will glorify Your might with all our hearts!
The words of the prayer of the soldiers of the "army for the liberation of Belgrade" in 1456,
version of the translation of the 20th psalm from the Psalter of King David
"I threw a feast in the capital of the Romans, and soon I will come to have breakfast in Belgrade"
On May 29, 1453, the capital of Byzantium fell. On that day, the Turkish troops of Sultan Mehmed II (1432-1481) took Constantinople, turning the ancient Orthodox capital for centuries into Islamic Istanbul. And a sparkling star was added to the Turkish red flag with a white crescent - a symbol of the captured Byzantine capital, which is present there to this day ...
Then it seemed to everyone that the triumphal procession of the Ottomans could not be stopped. In 1448, the Muslim army won its second victory over the Balkan Christians in the Kosovo field; in 1453 Constantinople fell; in 1454, the Turks finally conquered almost all of Serbia and a number of territories in the Balkans.
The Sultan said: "I will come to breakfast in Belgrade, I will dine in Budapest, and I will dine in Vienna! .."
The fall of Constantinople and the death of Byzantium horrified the Eastern European rulers. The haughty Ottoman sultan declared in 1455 to the ambassadors of Serbia, Hungary, Austria and Italy: “Tell your rulers that yesterday I had a feast in the capital of the Rumians. Soon I will come to Belgrade for breakfast, I will dine in Budapest, and I will dine in Vienna! .. I can show the only way to salvation for your sovereigns: become Muslims and my tributaries - and this is the only way to avoid the death prepared for you! "
War has been declared. The huge and victorious army of Islamists, like a gigantic predatory beast that has made a lair on the ruins of Constantinople, began to prepare for the next attack.
Then, five centuries ago, as usual divided and not having sufficient strength to repel, Southeast Europe faced another invasion of numerous Islamic troops. Since the Sultan's plan for an aggressive war at the first stage, before the invasion of Central Europe, provided for the conquest of the last Serbian territories, the Turkish forces, having set out from Adrianople (Edirne), approached Belgrade on July 1, 1456. Numerous guns, which had previously destroyed the walls of Constantinople, were withdrawn into position, and on July 4, shelling of the fortress began. In total, the Turks used 20 large-caliber siege weapons, 7 large siege mortars, as well as a mass of smaller guns numbering more than 200. Not a single fortress in Europe or Asia before that was able to withstand the fire of the huge siege park of the Ottomans.
It must be said that in the years preceding the battle, the small Belgrade castle turned into a powerful fortress. The outer ring of the defense was made up of single stone walls of the “lower city” with a river port; the second line of defense was the double walls of the "upper city", and the "inner castle" was the third and final line of defense.
But the Ottoman warriors were "noble city dwellers", and the city, besieged by a huge army with the best artillery at that time in quantity and quality, was still doomed without external help.
"God's Host for the Liberation of Serbia" against "the army of Allah's warriors who firmly embarked on the path of ghazavat"
So, for many reasons, the formation of the "Serbian Liberation Army" has been postponed and postponed. In Europe, as usual, there was only constant talk about the need for unity, but mutual economic squabbles dominated politics. Even in the Hungarian kingdom itself, part of the feudal lords opposed the campaign to unblock Belgrade, believing that the capital of Serbia was already doomed, that Catholics should not help Orthodox "schismatics" and that the Hungarians needed to keep their strength to defend their main fortresses.
Therefore, instead of a consolidated rebuff of large European-Christian coalition forces on the walls of Belgrade, the Turks were met by a few squads of Serbian, Hungarian and Dalmatian feudal lords. The garrison also consisted of a number of well-armed professional mercenaries and several thousand worse armed militias from local peasants and townspeople. In addition, the city was defended by small detachments of volunteer knights from Austria, Czech Republic, Poland, Germany and Italy, who served not for money, but for the sake of fulfilling crusader vows or simply at the call of their conscience.
“God's Host of the Liberation of Serbia,” as the forces of the salvation of Belgrade were then called, gathered extremely slowly: in the winter of 1456 it had only 6-8 thousand soldiers, and in the spring of 1456, with great difficulty, it was possible to recruit 12-15 thousand (of which several thousand were sent to strengthen the Belgrade garrison).
In parallel with the recruitment of relatively professional troops, papal envoys and wandering monks of mendicant orders gathered in Hungary and neighboring countries any persons wishing to take part in a crusade - if not for the liberation of Constantinople, then at least for the sake of saving Belgrade. There were quite a significant number of such people, but they were, according to an eyewitness, "peaceful rural settlers, urban artisans, and simply various poor people not fit for war."
Yes, now Europeans, who had previously abandoned attempts to resist Islamic aggression on the fields of distant Palestine and Syria, had to meet radical followers of the religion of Allah right on their own doorstep. In some ways, the events of 500 years ago resemble those of our days ...
There is no exact data on the number of troops concentrated in Belgrade, but it is known that the whole city was defended by seemingly significant forces (3-7 thousand people). However, in reality this was very small in comparison with the approaching huge Sultan's army (which, according to various estimates, numbered from 60 thousand to 100 thousand, or even up to 160 thousand people).
There is relatively accurate data only on the number of some professional units that then marched with the Ottoman army to Belgrade. In particular, 3-5 thousand soldiers out of 6 thousand available then in the Janissary infantry could act with the Sultan. Also, up to 40 thousand professional heavy cavalry "spag" and medium cavalry "jabelu" (in the middle of the 15th century, the Ottomans had 22-25 thousand Rumelian and 17-20 thousand Anatolian horsemen, who were exhibited by the owners of land estates) could go on a campaign. A huge force was the "kapykulu" corps - 6 "golden" regiments of the Sultan Horse Guards, which in total at that time numbered 3,000 highly professional, heavily armed horsemen.
Thus, there were 45–48 thousand only professional soldiers with the Sultan under the walls of Belgrade. The number of various mounted and foot militias, Yaya infantry, Musselem cavalry, Akinji and Yuryuk light horsemen, as well as Ottoman vassal troops, without an accurate regimental painting, cannot be counted at present. The scale of these forces makes it possible to see the siege of Constantinople, which took place three years earlier, where there were only about 40 thousand volunteers-"gazis", not counting several tens of thousands of horse archers "akinji", etc.
Therefore, even if we reject the estimates of contemporaries that there were 150-160 thousand or 100-120 thousand Turkish soldiers in the main Sultan's army, then the number of about 80 thousand Ottoman forces gathered for a campaign against Serbia and Hungary seems quite real.
The huge siege park (according to some estimates, 200 or even 300 barrels) was serviced, in addition to the Turkish artillery servants, by numerous European artillerymen and engineers who volunteered to serve the Sultan for a generous salary.
To replenish the artillery, as before on the eve of the siege of Constantinople, in the conquered regions of Asia Minor and the Balkans, crosses and bells were removed from Christian churches, the metal of which was used to smelt guns.
The army of J. Hunyadi, who approached the city to release the blockade, was quite small; its number is estimated at approximately 22-40 thousand soldiers. Of these, in the army under the direct leadership of the Hungarian regent, there were 12 thousand professional soldiers and knights, and from 10 to 30 thousand were the forces of almost unarmed militia in the army of the legate John Capistrano.
It should be said that, apart from the King of Hungary and the Pope, none of the rulers of the large neighboring states of Europe provided official large-scale assistance to Belgrade. The vast majority of the Christian army were soldiers who voluntarily, at the call of their conscience, went on a campaign, without the indication of their rulers, or at best with their approval.
Not a single professional army of serious size was assembled to help Hunyadi's army. Only Austria, Dalmatia, Bohemia, and Italy sent separate contingents of volunteer knights, hired mercenary units and deployed relatively professional warriors who performed crusading vows.
The princes of Transylvania and Saxony generally refused to send help. The rulers of Spain eagerly responded to the pope's call, but in reality all their forces were involved in the fight against the Moors, and they sent nothing but encouraging letters. The kings of France, England, as well as the emperor of the German lands, in words expressed sympathy for the dying Serbia and even announced the collection of "crusading tithes." However, they did not send any large military detachments, and these sovereigns simply appropriated most of the collected funds. In general, everything was as usual in Europe, and the fate of Belgrade hung literally by a thread.
At the walls of Belgrade, Turkish troops outnumbered Christians by at least three times
The exact data on the composition of the Christian forces also did not reach us, but one way or another, according to the unanimous estimates of contemporaries, the Turkish troops outnumbered the Christians by about three times. And in terms of the total number of artillery barrels, the superiority of the Sultan's army was about an order of magnitude.
The cousin of the King of Hungary, Mihai Silaji, known for his combat experience, was appointed to command the garrison of Belgrade, to whom Janos' son Hunyadi Laszlo was later sent with reinforcements.
The backbone of the defenders of this fortress was made up of the last Serbian knights and Orthodox "implacable" emigrants from the Balkan and Byzantine lands already conquered by the Turks, who decided not to lay down their arms, but to continue the fight against Ottoman aggression in Europe. In addition, a detachment of Western European knights from among the crusader volunteers was sent to Belgrade for reinforcement. Together, these warriors finally made up a fairly impressive force, which (together with the militia from among the townspeople and peasants) numbered several thousand people; this number is roughly comparable to the garrison that defended Constantinople three years earlier.
The siege of Belgrade begins
On June 3, 1456, a comet appeared in the sky over Europe, moving from east to west and having a long tail, resembling a Turkish saber. Seeing this sign, the Christians realized that an invasion could not be avoided, while the Turks interpreted this phenomenon as a sign that clearly expresses the will of Allah to march to Europe, indicating its direction and guaranteeing victory.
The Ottoman army, gathered in the region between Istanbul and Edirne, set out on a long, but seemingly unstoppable march. Having approached Belgrade, the Turks immediately established a river blockade of the fortress along the Danube, since their army was accompanied by a huge squadron of 200 cargo and combat pennants, marching up the Danube. However, on July 14, 1456, Christian sailors managed to break through the line of the Turkish fleet with a surprise attack. Approximately 100 Hungarian, Austrian and German ships attacked the Ottoman squadron from the upper Danube, and 40 Serbian, Croatian and Italian pennants operated from the Sava River.
The fierce battle on the waters of the Danube lasted for several hours. Finally, the Ottoman ships were still driven back and retreated below Belgrade. 3 large Muslim galleys were sunk, 24 ships were captured, and the road to the city was opened for Christian reinforcements and supplies.
Then the Sultan ordered to intensify the shelling of the fortress and appointed a general assault on July 20. Upon learning of this, the Christian army that was unblocking accelerated its march and on July 17 approached Belgrade, setting up camp across the Sava River. However, frightened by the size of the Turkish army, the strength of its positions, and most importantly - the monstrous multiplicity of its artillery, the command of the unblocking forces decided to abandon the attack (believing that it would be doomed). In fact, the defenders of the city were left to their fate ... and Divine help. And this, as it turned out later, was not so little, although skeptics usually think otherwise.
True, when at the military council of the commanders of the Christian army it was decided to retreat without giving a fight, and they learned about this in the regiments, such indecision caused a mutiny. A significant part of the crusader warriors declared that in spite of everything they would try to provide assistance to the defending garrison and would not abandon the Serbian and Hungarian brothers in trouble. As a result, in order to prevent the split of his already not very large army, Janos Hunyadi decided to stay and closely monitor the development of the situation.
The shelling of the fortress from the side of the Turks continued. The small artillery of the defenders, which tried to conduct counter-battery fire, was soon almost completely suppressed by an order of magnitude more numerous and more long-range Turkish. The walls of the "lower city", although recently reinforced, but built according to medieval traditions, were pierced by Turkish guns in a few days. However, the Ottoman artillerymen coped with the double walls of the "upper city" located on a high mountain only in the afternoon of July 20, 1456, and they did not manage to make a big gap in the walls of the citadel at all. Mehmed II, and so annoyed that he had to delay the start of the assault, did not wait further and ordered the troops to attack.
On the walls and in the gaps, a fierce battle boiled over, in its intensity not inferior to the storming of Constantinople three years earlier. Driven by religious fanaticism, inspired by their multiplicity and belief in success, constantly “pumped up” to the degree of exaltation by various “dervishes” and Islamic preachers of “ghazavat”, the Ottoman warriors marched into the assault in thick columns.
The European defenders of the city stood up for life and death. According to the testimony of contemporaries, Christian priests, both Catholic and Orthodox, stood right in the ranks of the soldiers on the walls and in the gaps, inspiring them to fight to the end.
The cruel assault lasted more than a day. And although the Turks managed to break into the city, the defenders of Belgrade did not surrender.
The brutal assault lasted more than a day. Beginning in the afternoon of July 20, it continued all day on July 21, 1456. Ottoman soldiers replaced each other by echelon, while there was no one to replace the Serbo-Hungarian defenders. But the defenders held out, although the attackers had a large numerical superiority (reaching up to 6: 1 and even up to 10: 1). However, in the late afternoon on July 21, the Turks broke into the fortress ...
True, this did not lead to the collapse of the defense: the defenders did not surrender. They understood that they were doomed anyway, but they hoped that help from the Liberation Army would still come.
Hand-to-hand fights boiled with renewed vigor on the streets of the Serbian capital. Christians set up impromptu barricades, fiercely defended every house. And the Sultan threw more and more reserves into the crucible of battle.
The city caught fire.
Here, unable to withstand the night hand-to-hand combat on the burning streets, the Turkish troops began to retreat from the fortress. The conqueror of Constantinople decided that since the “lower city” had already been taken, and the “upper city” had almost fallen, then in the morning with minimal risk it would be possible to finish off the surviving defenders and capture the citadel without any problems.
However, the course of further events did not develop as calculated by Mehmet II. As they say, Allah assumed, and the Lord disposed. Even at the end of the night of July 21/22, seeing that the defense had entered the final stage, the unblocking Christian army approached the city. First of all, reinforcements were sent to the fortress on ships, which finally replaced the surviving heroes of the defense, who fought incessantly and did not sleep for two days. However, the main forces of the "Belgrade Liberation Army" stood across the river, so far not taking any active action.
The day the fate of Serbia was decided
In the early morning of July 22, 1456, part of the newly arrived Christian warriors - both from the city and from the Sava River - decided to go to the "no man's land" without an order in order to collect trophies and engage in single battles with the Turks, who were also plundering at that time. fallen. Gradually, small clashes of loners turned into battles of outposts, and then the forces participating in the confrontation only increased on both sides.
At the same time, a significant number of crusaders from the "army for the liberation of Belgrade" "were kindled by the spirit of war and thirsty for battle." At their own request, they crossed the Danube tributary and attacked the Turkish lines of the left flank. Some of the officers and priests of the Hunyadi army, knowing about the numerical superiority of the Turks and the strength of their position, tried to stop the violators of discipline. Moreover, they even got into boats to try to prevent the passage of their soldiers.
However, this had the opposite effect. The Christian warriors, seeing in the predawn gloom that some of their comrades had already crossed over to the other side and were fighting the Turks, and their commanders and priests were driving around in boats on the river and shouting something, they decided that they were leading them into an attack. Then the whole army suddenly rushed forward, quickly overcoming the Sava River by swimming and fords.
Here and the commanders of the Christian army, deciding to take advantage of the successful impulse of their soldiers, finally ordered all the regiments to move into an attack on the left flank of the Turkish siege line. The Sultan's troops, resting after the assaults and completely not expecting a blow from the small and hitherto passive Christian army, tried to counterattack chaotically.
At first, the akinji and other light troops from Anatolia and other Asian provinces came out against the unblocking forces, but they were quickly driven back. True, so far this has not decided anything. A formidable wave of heavy Ottoman cavalry was already preparing to roll on the Christian lines barely entrenched on the coast. However, during their retreat, the light Anatolian horsemen mixed the ranks of the heavily armed riders "spag" and "jabel" who came to their aid. Confusion arose in their ranks, the Ottoman commanders tried to put their regiments in order. And at this time the Christian army attacked decisively.
The fierce onslaught of the infantry and cavalry of the crusaders intensified, and an increasing number of them were transported to the Belgrade side from behind the Sava. The resulting confusion in the mishmash of the Sultan's troops was growing. Panic ensued and all the left wing Ottoman forces fled. The attempt of the Turkish commanders to organize a counterattack by the "Rumelian spags" from the right wing, where troops from the Balkan provinces were stationed, only increased the general chaos and did not bring success.
Here Janos Hunyadi and his commanders finally took control of the army and, stopping the pursuit of those fleeing on the Ottoman left flank, struck with all their might at the Turkish center and the headquarters of the Sultan.
Seeing the success of their liberators, the remnants of the Belgrade garrison with the arriving reinforcements supported the attack, striking the Ottoman artillery in the center from the direction of the city. The fire of dozens of Turkish guns this time could not stop the attackers, and as a result of a swift attack, the positions of the Ottoman artillery were taken.
Then something unprecedented happened: unable to withstand a blow from both sides - from the Sava River and from the city - the Sultan's guard, including the famous janissaries, trembled and ran, after half of the army; those of them who remained in their positions fell under the blows of all attacking and attacking Christians.
Seeing this, the impressionable Mehmed II wanted to poison himself out of grief or throw himself on a spear, but those close to him restrained him from this. Then the sultan wanted to rush into the thick of the battle on horseback with a sword in hand in order to stop the fleeing by his example, but was immediately wounded by an arrow in the thigh. This arrow, oddly enough, turned out to be Turkish ... (Well, how can you not remember the words of the psalm that was read in the "army of the liberation of Belgrade" before the battle: "You will direct their arrows in their face!"
The sultan wanted to stop the stampede of his army, but was immediately wounded by a Turkish arrow
Perhaps, from the shock of an unexpected turn of affairs, or perhaps from the loss of blood, the Sultan fainted right in front of his soldiers. And the onslaught of the European regiments continued, and the Hungarian banners had already approached the headquarters of the ruler of the Ottoman Empire. Then, barely bringing Mehmed II to his senses and bandaging his wound, the retinue put the Sultan on a horse and quickly took him away from the battlefield in a deranged state ...
And as soon as the formidable conqueror of Byzantium, who had seemed invincible until now, was saved by his entourage, under the onslaught of Christians, the court Sultan's regiments wavered and fled. Now it was already a real crash.
Seeing the flight of the left flank and everything that was happening in the center, the Turkish troops of the right flank decided: since even the guard was defeated, and the sultan, apparently, was killed, then “there is definitely no will of Allah to win on this day”. And the "Rumelian" right-flank units, following the rest of the army, turned to panicky flight, practically not offering serious resistance to the advancing Europeans.
So the huge Sultan's army, which had previously taken Constantinople, was defeated by a much smaller united army of Eastern and Western Christians in a field battle near the walls of the Serbian capital. This day will go down in history as "The Miracle of the Belgrade Victory".
Results and consequences of the battle
Yes, Belgrade, unlike Constantinople, was "too tough" for the Ottoman army. Thanks to an amazing combination of circumstances, the Christian army was able to stop the huge army of Islamists. Many Russian authors, describing the fall of Constantinople, following some Byzantines of that era, speak of the ruin of the alliance with their European neighbors, pointing to the events of 1453. However, at the same time they do not say anything or simply do not know about the "Belgrade Triumph" of 1456, which would have been impossible without the joint concerted actions of the Orthodox and Catholics in the face of the Islamic danger. Of course, the mysterious intervention from Above was clearly not without: as in 1453 there was probably the will of the Lord for the fall of Constantinople, so in 1456 His will predetermined the common victory of the Orthodox and Catholics in extremely unfavorable conditions for them.
I must say that the ruler of the Ottoman Empire repaid his entourage for rescuing from the battlefield and for their care in a very specific way: when most of his senior officers arrived with him in Sofia, then, according to eyewitnesses, he seemed to go mad. In this city, the sultan personally cut off the heads of those of his comrades-in-arms whom he considered responsible for the defeat, and ordered many other Ottoman commanders who had escaped from the battlefield to be executed by the executioners (although, no doubt, he himself was the main culprit of this military collapse).
So a certain, one might say, mystical turn of fate took place, and many of the Ottoman officers who took Constantinople, avoiding death on the battlefields, died from the Sultan's executioners three years after the triumph of Islam, prepared by their own hands. It is difficult not to remember the words: "Vengeance is mine, and I will repay."
The siege park of the Ottoman artillery, unprecedented in size, almost entirely fell into the hands of Christians: 12 huge siege bombards were captured, 8 somewhat smaller, but also very large guns and dozens of smaller caliber guns (according to some estimates, the trophies were 150 or even 200 artillery units ). The largest of the captured Turkish guns was 8 meters long! ..
In fact, the Sultan's army lost all its magnificent artillery, which the Turks had created for many years and only thanks to which Constantinople was taken three years earlier. The number of Turkish guns captured near Belgrade turned out to be so large that the prices for guns and metal for them in neighboring countries in the coming years after the Serbian-Hungarian triumph fell sharply.
The numerical losses of the Turks were also very high. We do not have exact data, but, according to various estimates, they numbered from 20-24 thousand to several tens of thousands of soldiers. Ottoman accounts report the loss of about a third of the army. Infantry units suffered the most, including the famous Janissaries. They, unlike the Ottoman horsemen, participated in all the assaults of the fortress, and in the decisive battle it was they who, while fleeing, became victims of the cavalry pursuing the army of the Sultan.
The losses of Christians were also significant, but much less Turkish. First of all, the garrison of the Serbian capital suffered, having lost, according to some estimates, up to 80% of its defenders (mainly during three-day hand-to-hand combat; losses from the Turkish bombing, despite the terrible damage to the city, turned out to be relatively small). Also, quite a lot of damage was suffered by the detachments of weakly armed and practically unarmored crusader militias.
As a result of this victory of Christian weapons, the Turkish threat - both to Belgrade in particular and to Hungary in general - will be eliminated for 70 years. The capital of Serbia, at that time turned into a border outpost of the Kingdom of Hungary, will be captured by Ottoman troops only in 1521. But, as they say, it will be a different time and a completely different story.
After the news of the miraculous deliverance from the terrible Turkish invasion, solemn religious processions were held everywhere in the cities of Italy, Dalmatia, Austria and Hungary.
Having suffered a crushing defeat at the walls of Belgrade, Mehmed II did not lose his military fervor. A few years later, having partially restored the army and artillery, he turned his attention to other, weaker, as it seemed to him, opponents. However, having learned from bitter experience, this Turkish sultan never again launched a large campaign against Serbia and Hungary.
Surprisingly, over the past five centuries, not a single Pope has withdrawn the decree of Callistus III "on the Turkish bell ringing." According to him, on the summer days of July 21-23 (when the battle was going on) and on August 6 (when the news of the defeat of the Turks was received in Rome) throughout the Christian world, bells should be rung at noon, prayerfully remembering the defenders of Belgrade. For today's rapidly Islamizing Europe, this is somehow very intolerant ...
Moreover, this instruction about the bell ringing in memory of the Belgrade miracle was given to all Catholic churches "of all known countries of the world." Some missionaries brought it, for example, even to the ruler of Ethiopia.
However, in the Americas, as well as in Australia - that is, on continents unknown to Europeans in the 15th century - many of the decrees of the popes issued before 1492 are not recognized by local Catholics. Therefore, "Victory Day in Belgrade" is never celebrated by Catholic parishes in the United States and other countries of the New World, and in the Catholic churches of America, prayers for the defenders of Belgrade have never been raised or offered up. Accordingly, the bells announcing the ancient Serbian-Hungarian triumph over the "Saracens" and carrying the call for the unity of Christians against the Turkish danger for five centuries have never rang or ring there. A skeptic, of course, will consider all this just a strange coincidence, nothing more. However, modern believers Serbs, Czechs and Hungarians, who are interested in military history and remember this glorious day, do not think so.
On the 26th of Ramadan, 927 AH (29 August 1521), Turkish troops under the command of Sultan Suleiman I took Belgrade after a two-month siege. This city was the most important fortress of the Hungarian kingdom and was of great strategic importance as it was the gateway to Central Europe. Belgrade's transfer to the Turks made a heavy impression on the Catholic world. Soon, all of Europe realized that the capture of Belgrade was just the beginning of new victories for the Ottoman Empire, which reached the peak of its power under Suleiman the Magnificent.
After the death of his father Selim I in the fall of 1520, his 26-year-old son Suleiman became the sultan. Having ascended the throne, he decided to continue the struggle against the Habsburg Empire, of which Hungary was a part. At this time, King Louis II ruled there, under which relations with the Ottoman Empire intensified: all kinds of rebellions and clashes took place on the Turkish-Hungarian border. Suleiman decided to end anarchy in the border territories and sent his ambassador to the king with a demand to stop provocations and pay jizya. The barons who surrounded the young Louis not only rejected negotiations with the Turks, but also killed the Sultan's envoy. This was the reason for the outbreak of hostilities against the Hungarians. In May 1521, Suleiman personally left Istanbul with his troops.
At the beginning of the campaign, the Rumelian runaway Ahmed captured the fortified fortress of Sabac (July 7, 1521), and the Grand Vizier Piri took the town of Zemlin. As a result, the road to Belgrade was opened. After a desperate defense, the city's garrison, which withstood more than twenty attacks, surrendered. On August 28, the lower city was taken, and on August 29, after negotiations, the whole of Belgrade surrendered. Sappers played an important role in the capture of the city. They managed to blow up part of the city wall. In addition, the fortress was subjected to powerful siege artillery fire. After the gap was formed, the elite of the Turkish army - the Janissaries - poured into it.
Under the terms of the surrender, the Magyar garrison was exiled to their native Hungary. As for the Orthodox inhabitants of Belgrade, it is noteworthy that during the siege they rebelled against the Hungarian garrison, explaining their actions by the fact that they prefer to live “under the rule of a Muslim Turk than under the rule of a Catholic Magyar”. As a reward to the Belgrade people for their help and favor, Suleiman gave the relics of the Christian saint Paraskeva to the Serbian clergy, and did not destroy them. Some of the residents of Belgrade even moved to the outskirts of Istanbul, where they were entrusted with supplying the capital of the Ottoman Empire with water. This fact was reflected in toponymy - the village where the Serbs lived was called Beligrad-mahalla. In addition, many Serbian sailors went into the service of the Sultan, joining the ranks of the naval forces of the Ottoman fleet. Belgrade flourished under Turkish rule as it became a vast market between Europe and Asia. In addition, the city turned into a major military base from where invasions of other European countries took place.
Five years after the fall of Belgrade, the battle of Mohacs took place, during which Sultan Suleiman inflicted a crushing defeat on the combined Hungarian-Czech-Croatian army. The victory was achieved in just two hours. A huge role in this was played by the Muslim Slavs from the Balkan possessions of the Ottoman Empire. The Battle of Mohacs opened wide opportunities for the Turks to conquer all of Central Europe. Having included in its possession the very heart of Europe - the Middle Danube Plain - the Ottoman Empire turned it into a springboard for the further spread of Islam and the conquest of new territories.
After the capture of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II gathered forces to subdue the Kingdom of Hungary. The immediate target of the attack was the border fortress in Belgrade.
Preparations for the siege were started by the Hungarian side at the end of 1455 after Hunyadi reconciled with political opponents. Hunyadi at his own expense supplied the Belgrade fortress with supplies, armed it and left a strong garrison in it under the command of brother-in-law Mihai Siladya and his eldest son Laszlo, and he himself began collecting reinforcements and creating a fleet. Hunyadi did not enjoy the support of the nobility, who feared his strengthening, and had only his own resources.
Thanks to the help of the Catholic Church, and especially the Franciscan monk John Capistranus, who preached a crusade against the Turks, Hunyadi was able to attract peasants and small landowners. They were poorly armed (many had only slings and scythes), but determined. The core of Hunyadi's troops was a small group of mercenaries and several detachments of noble cavalry. In total, the Hungarians managed to gather 25-30 thousand people.
Before Hunyadi managed to gather an army, the army of Mehmed II (its number according to early estimates was 160,000, according to new studies - 60-70 thousand people) approached Belgrade. In charge of the defense of the castle of Siladya, he had at his disposal 5,000 - 7,000 Hungarian garrisons, as well as Serb soldiers. The siege began on 4 July 1456. On June 29, 1456, the Turks began shelling the fortress from the hill.
Mehmed divided the army into three parts. Located on the right flank, the Rumelian corps had most of the 300 guns (the rest were on ships). On the left were heavy infantry from Anatolia. In the center was the Sultan's personal guard, the janissaries and the headquarters of the command. The fleet (more than 200 ships) was located to the northwest of the city: it was supposed to patrol the swamps and prevent reinforcements from approaching the fortress, as well as control the Sava River in the southwest to prevent the infantry from flanking. From the east, the Danube was covered by the Sipakhs, whose task was to prevent the Turks from bypassing from the right flank.
The news of the beginning of the siege found Hunyadi in southern Hungary, where he was recruiting light cavalry for the army, with the help of which he was going to lift the siege. After joining forces with the forces of the papal legate, Cardinal John Capistranus, which mainly consisted of peasants, Hunyadi moved to Belgrade. In general, under the command of Capistrana and Hunyadi, there were between 40,000 and 50,000 people.
Pictured: Belgrade Fortress
The few defenders relied mainly on the strength of the Belgrade castle, which was at that time one of the best in the Balkans. After Stefan Lazarevich moved the capital of Serbian despotism to Belgrade in 1404, a lot of work was done to transform the small old Byzantine castle into a reliable modern fortification. The castle had three lines of defense: a lower city with a cathedral, a city center and a port on the Danube, an upper city with four gates and a double wall, in which the army was located, and an inner castle with a palace and a large donjon. The Belgrade Castle became one of the significant achievements of the military architecture of the Middle Ages.
On July 14, 1456, Hunyadi approached the completely surrounded city with his Danube flotilla. On the same day he managed to break the naval blockade by sinking three large Ottoman galleys and capturing four large and twenty small ships. Having destroyed the Sultan's fleet, Hunyadi was able to ferry troops and supply the city with the necessary food. The defense of the fortress was strengthened.
However, the siege was not lifted. As a result of intensive artillery shelling that lasted for a week, the fortress wall was breached in several places. On July 21, Mehmed II ordered a general assault on the fortress, which began at sunset and continued throughout the night. The advancing Turkish army captured the city and began an assault on the fortress. At the critical moment of the assault, Hunyadi ordered the defenders to dump the burnt tar tree and other flammable materials. As a result, the janissaries fighting in the city were cut off by a wall of fire from their comrades trying to break into the upper city through the gaps in the wall.
The fierce battle in the upper city between the surrounded Janissaries and the soldiers of Siladya ended in success for the Christians: the Hungarians managed to push the attackers away from the walls. The Janissaries remaining inside were destroyed, and Turkish troops, trying to break into the upper city, suffered heavy losses.
Pictured: Siege of Belgrade
When the Turkish soldiers almost managed to plant the Sultan's flag on the top of the bastion, the Serb soldier Titus Dugovic pulled it out and jumped off the wall with him. For this self-sacrifice, the son of Janos Hunyadi, the Hungarian king Matthias Corvin, three years later made his son Titus a noble.
The next day, the battle took an unexpected turn. Despite the order not to try to plunder the Turkish positions, part of the army withdrew from behind the destroyed rampart and took up positions along the Turkish line. Attempts by the vultures to disperse them were unsuccessful. More soldiers were joining the Hungarians behind the wall, and the incident quickly escalated into a full-scale battle.
Seeing that it was not possible to stop the people, Kapistran, at the head of 2000 peasants, launched an offensive into the rear of the Turkish army located along the Sava. At the same time, Hunyadi launched an attack from the fortress, the purpose of which was to capture the artillery positions in the Turkish camp.
Caught by surprise, and, according to some chroniclers, paralyzed by inexplicable fear, the Turks began to flee. The Sultan's personal bodyguard, which consisted of about 5,000 janissaries, desperately tried to end the panic and recapture the camp, but the Hunyadi army had already entered the battle, and the efforts of the Turks were unsuccessful. The sultan personally took part in the battle and killed the knight in the battle, but was wounded by an arrow in the thigh and lost consciousness.
After the battle, the Hungarian units were ordered to spend the night outside the walls in combat readiness, but no Turkish counterattack followed. Under cover of darkness, the Turks hastily retreated, taking away 140 wagons with the wounded. The Sultan regained consciousness in the city of Sarona. Upon learning that his army had fled, most of the commanders were killed, and all property was lost, the 24-year-old ruler wanted to poison himself. The unexpected attack of the Hungarians led to confusion and heavy losses, so that night, defeated Mehmed retreated with the remaining troops to Constantinople.
Pictured: Siege of Belgrade. Turkish miniature
After the battle, the Hungarian camp was struck by an epidemic, from which Janos Hunyadi himself died three weeks later (August 11, 1456). He was buried in the Cathedral of Alba Iulia, the capital of Transylvania.
The Belgrade fortress showed itself well during the siege, so the Hungarians made additional fortifications: in the weak eastern walls, through which the Turks managed to break into the upper city, the Zindan Gate and the Nebojsi artillery tower were built. It was the last major modification of the fortress until 1521, when it was captured by Sultan Suleiman I the Magnificent.
During the siege, Pope Callixtus III ordered bells to be rung at noon, calling the faithful to prayer for the defenders of Christianity. However, in many places the news of the victory was received earlier, and the bells were already ringing as a sign of victory, therefore the interpretation of the papal order was corrected. The tradition of ringing bells at noon continues to this day.
The victory at Belgrade halted the Turkish advance against Catholic Europe for 70 years, despite a series of invasions, in particular the capture of Otranto in 1480-1481 and the attack on Croatia and Styria in 1493. Belgrade continued to defend Hungary from the Turks until the capture of the fortress in 1521.
Pictured: The Battle of Belgrade.
The further advance of the Turks into Europe was delayed due to the strengthening of Hungary under Hunyadi's son Matthias Corvinus, the need to create a reliable base in the recently captured Serbia and Bosnia, as well as as a result of a series of defeats inflicted on Mehmed II by vassals - the Lord of Wallachia Vlad III Tepes (in the "night attack ») And the ruler of Moldova, Stephen III the Great (battles on Vaslui and at Val Albe).
At the same time, Christians failed to build on their success and return Constantinople. King of Hungary Matthias I was not a supporter of a big war with Turkey and was mainly engaged in the defense of his own possessions. Most of Hungary was occupied by the Turks in 1526 after the Battle of Mohacs.
Ottoman expansion into Europe continued with varying success until the siege of Vienna in 1529. The Turks remained a significant force and threatened Central Europe until the Battle of Vienna in 1683.