After the capture of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II gathered forces to subdue the Kingdom of Hungary. The immediate target of the attack was the border fortress in Belgrade.
Preparations for the siege were started by the Hungarian side at the end of 1455 after the reconciliation of Hunyadi with political opponents. Hunyadi, at his own expense, supplied the Belgrade fortress with supplies, armed it and left a strong garrison in it under the command of brother-in-law Mihai Siladya and his eldest son Laszlo, and he himself began collecting reinforcements and creating a fleet. Hunyadi did not enjoy the support of the nobility, who feared his strengthening, and had only his own resources.
Thanks to the help of the Catholic Church, and especially the Franciscan monk John Capistranus, who preached a crusade against the Turks, Hunyadi was able to attract peasants and small landowners. They were poorly armed (many had only slings and scythes), but determined. The core of Hunyadi's troops was a small group of mercenaries and several detachments of noble cavalry. In total, the Hungarians managed to gather 25-30 thousand people.
Before Hunyadi managed to gather an army, the army of Mehmed II (its number according to early estimates was 160,000, according to new studies - 60-70 thousand people) approached Belgrade. He who commanded the defense of the castle of Siladya had at his disposal 5,000 - 7,000 people of the Hungarian garrison, as well as Serb soldiers. The siege began on 4 July 1456. On June 29, 1456, the Turks began shelling the fortress from the hill.
Mehmed divided the army into three parts. On the right flank, the Rumelian corps had most of the 300 guns (the rest were on ships). On the left were heavy infantry from Anatolia. In the center was the Sultan's personal guard, the janissaries and the headquarters of the command. The fleet (more than 200 ships) was located to the northwest of the city: it was supposed to patrol the swamps and prevent reinforcements from approaching the fortress, as well as control the Sava River in the southwest to prevent the infantry from flanking. From the east, the Danube was covered by the Sipakhs, whose task was to prevent the Turks from bypassing from the right flank.
News of the beginning of the siege found Hunyadi in the south of Hungary, where he was recruiting light cavalry for the army, with the help of which he was going to lift the siege. After joining forces with the forces of the papal legate, Cardinal John Capistranus, which mainly consisted of peasants, Hunyadi moved to Belgrade. In general, Capistrana and Hunyadi commanded between 40,000 and 50,000 men.
Pictured: Belgrade Fortress
The few defenders relied mainly on the strength of the Belgrade castle, which at that time was one of the best in the Balkans. After Stefan Lazarevich moved the capital of Serbian despotism to Belgrade in 1404, a lot of work was done to transform the small old Byzantine castle into a reliable modern fortification. The castle had three lines of defense: a lower city with a cathedral, a city center and a port on the Danube, an upper city with four gates and a double wall, which housed the army, and an inner castle with a palace and a large keep. The Belgrade Castle became one of the significant achievements of the military architecture of the Middle Ages.
On July 14, 1456, Hunyadi approached the completely surrounded city with his Danube flotilla. On the same day he managed to break the naval blockade by sinking three large Ottoman galleys and capturing four large and twenty small ships. Having destroyed the Sultan's fleet, Hunyadi was able to ferry troops and supply the city with the necessary food. The defense of the fortress was strengthened.
However, the siege was not lifted. As a result of intensive artillery shelling that lasted for a week, the fortress wall was breached in several places. On July 21, Mehmed II ordered a general assault on the fortress, which began at sunset and continued throughout the night. The advancing Turkish army captured the city and began an assault on the fortress. At the critical moment of the assault, Hunyadi ordered the defenders to dump the set on fire, resinous wood and other flammable materials. As a result, the janissaries fighting in the city were cut off by a wall of fire from their comrades trying to break into the upper city through the gaps in the wall.
The fierce battle in the upper city between the surrounded Janissaries and the soldiers of Siladya ended in success for the Christians: the Hungarians managed to push the attackers away from the walls. The Janissaries remaining inside were destroyed, and Turkish troops, trying to break into the upper city, suffered heavy losses.
Pictured: Siege of Belgrade
When the Turkish soldiers almost managed to plant the Sultan's flag on the top of the bastion, the Serb soldier Titus Dugovic pulled it out and jumped off the wall with him. For this self-sacrifice, the son of Janos Hunyadi, the Hungarian king Matthias Corvin, three years later made his son Titus a noble.
The next day, the battle took an unexpected turn. Despite the order not to try to plunder the Turkish positions, part of the army withdrew from behind the destroyed rampart and took up positions along the Turkish line. Attempts by the vultures to disperse them were unsuccessful. More soldiers were joining the Hungarians behind the wall, and the incident quickly escalated into a full-scale battle.
Seeing that it was not possible to stop the people, Kapistran, at the head of 2000 peasants, launched an offensive into the rear of the Turkish army located along the Sava. At the same time, Hunyadi launched an attack from the fortress, the purpose of which was to capture the artillery positions in the Turkish camp.
Caught by surprise, and, according to some chroniclers, paralyzed by inexplicable fear, the Turks began to flee. The Sultan's personal bodyguard, which consisted of about 5,000 janissaries, desperately tried to end the panic and recapture the camp, but the Hunyadi army had already entered the battle, and the efforts of the Turks were unsuccessful. The sultan personally participated in the battle and killed the knight in the battle, but was wounded by an arrow in the thigh and lost consciousness.
After the battle, the Hungarian units were ordered to spend the night outside the walls in combat readiness, but there was no Turkish counterattack. Under cover of darkness, the Turks hastily retreated, taking away 140 wagons with the wounded. The Sultan regained consciousness in the city of Sarona. Upon learning that his army had fled, most of the commanders were killed, and all property was lost, the 24-year-old ruler wanted to poison himself. The unexpected attack of the Hungarians led to confusion and heavy losses, so that night, defeated Mehmed retreated with the remaining troops to Constantinople.
Pictured: Siege of Belgrade. Turkish miniature
After the battle, the Hungarian camp was struck by an epidemic, from which Janos Hunyadi himself died three weeks later (August 11, 1456). He was buried in the Cathedral of Alba Iulia, the capital of Transylvania.
The Belgrade fortress showed itself well during the siege, so the Hungarians made additional fortifications: in the weak eastern walls, through which the Turks managed to break into the upper city, the Zindan Gate and the Nebojsi artillery tower were built. It was the last major modification of the fortress until 1521, when it was captured by Sultan Suleiman I the Magnificent.
During the siege, Pope Callixtus III ordered bells to be rung at noon, calling the faithful to prayer for the defenders of Christianity. However, in many places the news of the victory was received earlier, and the bells were already ringing as a sign of victory, therefore the interpretation of the papal order was corrected. The tradition of ringing bells at noon continues to this day.
The victory at Belgrade halted the Turkish advance against Catholic Europe for 70 years, despite a series of invasions, in particular the capture of Otranto in 1480-1481 and the attack on Croatia and Styria in 1493. Belgrade continued to defend Hungary from the Turks until the capture of the fortress in 1521.
Pictured: The Battle of Belgrade.
The further advance of the Turks to Europe was delayed due to the strengthening of Hungary under Hunyadi's son Matthias Corvinus, the need to create a reliable base in the recently captured Serbia and Bosnia, as well as as a result of a series of defeats inflicted on Mehmed II by vassals - the Lord of Wallachia Vlad III Tepes (in the "night attack ») And the ruler of Moldova, Stephen III the Great (battles on Vaslui and at Val Albe).
At the same time, the Christians failed to build on their success and return Constantinople. King of Hungary Matthias I was not a supporter of a big war with Turkey and was mainly engaged in the defense of his own possessions. Most of Hungary was occupied by the Turks in 1526 after the Battle of Mohacs.
Ottoman expansion into Europe continued with varying success until the siege of Vienna in 1529. The Turks remained a significant force and threatened Central Europe until the Battle of Vienna in 1683.
Every day he introduces us to the events of this day that took place many years / centuries ago.
So, on to the topic of the post:
July 22, 1456 under
Belgrade stopped the Ottoman advance on Western Europe - and, moreover, for about seven decades! Contemporaries appreciated the importance of this event in full - it is believed that it was in his honor that Pope CalixtusIII will add a holiday to the calendar of the Western ChurchTransfiguration of the Lord ... (There is an opinion that the tradition of celebrating the victory with the ringing of bells went from here - in any case, it is known that the same Calixtus during the Belgrade siege will order to ring exactly at noon, reminding of the need to pray for the besieged - therefore this ringing " …)
... Along with the obvious historical meaning, there is something mystical in this battle (or, on the contrary - we will not be afraid of this word - curious!) However - in order.
Constantinople fell just three years ago - and MehmedII continued his victorious (as he assumed) path to the West. Belgrade was at that time an advanced outpost Kingdom of Hungary. (In addition to Hungary proper, it included the vast territories of present-day Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Croatia - and, in addition, Transcarpathia).
The Belgrade Fortress was once an insignificant Byzantine castle - but in a few decades it was turned, practically, into an example of engineering art. Adjacent to the Danube lower town with a port; behind it were double walls upper city; the last line of defense was the inner castle with donjon (more precisely, last line this narrow three-story tower became).
... Nevertheless, the local garrison did not exceed seven thousand - and Mehmed had two hundred ships, three hundred cannons, and one hundred and sixty thousand soldiers. (True, some researchers consider this number to be twice as high ... well, it doesn't matter - in any case, the advantage was huge - besides, the Sultan led an army tested in battles and inspired by victories ...)
... However, the regent of the Hungarian kingdom was in a hurry to help Janos Hunyadiand a Franciscan monk (and future saint) John Capistran!
... Hunyadi (his eldest son then commanded the Belgrade garrison - and the youngest would become the Hungarian king) was an experienced general, and over the past ten years he beat the Turks more than once - then he himself was beaten by them. He managed to collect, according to various sources, from fifteen to thirty thousand people - albeit mostly poorly armed peasants; there were, however, professional mercenaries and noble cavalry.
The Italian Capistran had already served as a papal legate in Germany for some time - and managed to become famous as a preacher (although he did it in Latin!) - and at the same time as merciless burner all sorts of heretics. Upon learning of the fall of Constantinople, he began to gather an army for a crusade ... however, the German barons were somehow not impressed by the ardent sermons (perhaps they knew little Latin) - therefore the quality of Kapistran's army was even more doubtful than that of the Hungarian regent. (Apparently, it was based on cosineers- and this formidable word means only peasants with braids). But they gathered (again, according to various estimates) from thirty to sixty thousand!
Meanwhile, Mehmed approached the city ... he had a different alignment: heavy Anatolian infantry, sipahs(armored cavalry) - and (where without them!) Janissaries. We have already mentioned the cannons and ships ... By the way, something went wrong with the ships - Hunyadi started by attacking them with his flotilla - he sank three galleys, captured two and a half dozen - the rest retreated in disorder. (Sometimes it seems that for centuries the Turkish fleet existed mainly for someone to sink it ...) One way or another - the blockade was broken; significant reinforcements were transferred to the city.
... But the Turkish cannons fired without interruption - and in a week they made several holes in the walls. Mehmed commands to start the assault - after sunset!Janissaries rush into the city, approach the fortress ... and then tarry logs begin to fall from the outer walls! The bulk of the Ottoman army was cut off by a wall of fire - the Hungarians and Serbs counterattack and cut down the janissaries who had broken through ... the rest retreat ...
(The immortalized moment of this battle is the feat of the Serb Titus Dugovich ...when he saw that the Turks had installed their flag on one of the bastions, he tore it down - and, along with the trophy, threw himself off the wall! The hero's descendants will be granted nobility ...)
... So, by the morning of the 22nd the battle had quieted down - and here the oddities began ... To begin with, the brave defenders of the fortress began to get out one by one. (With a simple and natural intention - to plunder! The field was littered with Turkish corpses - and, as they say, the most valuable trophies, like gold, were carried by the incredulous Janissaries even in battle).
... It is unclear how true this is - but the fact remains: little by little, the "no-man's land" was filled with so many besieged that Mehmed decided - this is an offensive! The Sultan sends cavalry ... the battle begins ... Both Hungarian commanders can only succumb to the elements: Kapistran with his cosineers falls on the Ottoman flank - Hunyadi withdraws troops from the city. Frustrated, Mehmed rushes into the attack at the head of his Janissaries - and gets an arrow in the thigh ...
... Either the wound of the Sultan impressed the Ottoman army so much, or there was some kind of sudden clouding over it - but the Turks together rushed to their heels, abandoning the camp, the guns - and in general, everything that could be thrown! By evening, Hunyadi will order, just in case, to retreat under the protection of the walls - but in the morning it turns out that there is no enemy within sight! (The Sultan, having come to himself after being wounded, wanted to get poisoned out of grief - but changed his mind and ordered to retreat to Constantinople ...)
PS: ... After this brilliant victory, the defenders of the city will suffer a plague epidemic - among others, it will take the lives of Hunyadi and Capistrana ... And Belgrade will be taken only in 1521 Suleiman the Magnificent ... However, this is a completely different story.
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Start of the Austro-German offensive. Fall of Belgrade
During September 1915, in order to mislead the Serbian command, German artillery fired several times on the Serbian banks of the Danube and Sava. On October 5-6, 1915, actual artillery preparation by the Mackensen armies began to prepare the crossing. On October 7, the Austro-German troops, with the support of the Danube Flotilla, began the crossing. From Bosnia, Austro-Hungarian troops attacked Montenegro, pinning down its army so that it could not, as during the 1914 campaign of the year, attack the flank of the Austro-German army.
The crossing of the Austro-German troops near Belgrade turned out to be lengthy and replete with obstacles, they had to take a well-fortified and favorable for defense, in its natural position, a bridgehead. The crossing was hampered by the need to clear the fairways of both rivers from minefields. In addition, a hurricane began that lasted more than a week. He scattered and damaged some of the ships and in some places cut off the landed vanguard from the main forces. However, the forward units were so strengthened that they withstood Serbian counterattacks without the support of the main forces. An important role in the success of the Austro-German waxes was played by heavy artillery, which suppressed most of the Serbian artillery and destroyed the fortifications. The ships of the Danube Flotilla also played an important role in the crossing, supporting the landing troops with fire, suppressing the Serbian batteries. The Austro-German troops used searchlights that helped sweep mines at night, blind the enemy's searchlights, illuminated targets for artillery and covered the crossing troops with a light curtain.
Transport of troops across the Danube
The plan of operations provided for the transition of the Austro-German through the Drina, Sava and Danube. At the same time, the 3rd Army had to cross its right flank, with a force of one and a half divisions, which was joined by the Bosnian Visegrad group, overcoming the knee formed by the Drina and Sava in Machva, and also crossing the Sava with the help of steam ferries under the cover of fire monitors and armed steamers Danube flotilla. With its center (three divisions of the Austro-Hungarian 14th Corps), the 3rd Army was supposed to cross the Sava near Progara on the night of October 7 by ferries and across a military bridge under the cover of the ships of the Danube Flotilla. On October 7, the troops of the 14th corps were to build a pontoon bridge at Bolevtsy. On the left flank, the 26th Austro-Hungarian Division was to cross the Sava at Ostruzhnica to distract the Serbs, and the 22nd German Reserve Corps was to force the Sava above the Big Gypsy Island in order to cover the Serbian capital from the southwest. German troops were to participate in the capture of Belgrade and join up with the 8th Austro-Hungarian corps, advancing from Zemlin. The Austro-Hungarian Danube Flotilla under the command of Captain 1st Rank Karl Lucich was to play an important role in the beginning of the operation.
The German 11th Army was to cross the Danube simultaneously in three columns: the 10th Reserve Corps was advancing at Palanca and Bazias on Ram; at Dunadombo - the 4th reserve corps across the Danube island of Temesziget to Kostolaki, and from Kevevar the 3rd reserve corps in the direction of the old Turkish fortress of Semendria. Down the river near Orsova, the Austrian group of General Fühlonn was supposed to operate. The Orsovskaya group performed mainly a demonstrative task. She was supposed to misinform and pin down the Serbian troops. Then she had to establish contact with the Bulgarians and, together with the 1st Bulgarian Army, occupy the protrusion of Serbian territory in the Danube bend at Kladovo in order to ensure free navigation along the Danube.
Field Marshal August von Mackensen
The offensive of the 3rd Austro-Hungarian Army. The Kövess army spent five days on the crossing, as the Serbian army stubbornly defended its capital. The Austro-German artillery conducted a powerful artillery barrage. So, at noon on October 6, the heavy artillery of the 8th Austro-Hungarian corps began preparing the crossing with a four-hour hurricane fire from 70 heavy and medium and 90 light guns. This was followed by shrapnel fire to suppress attempts to rebuild Serb batteries.
The 8th Austrian Corps had to cover the longest route by water, about 4 km, from the Zemlin region to Belgrade. His headquarters made a planning error and the first echelon of the 59th Infantry Division instead of the time scheduled for landing at 2 hours 50 minutes. approached the Serbian coast at 4 o'clock. And the artillery preparation ended according to plan at exactly 2 o'clock. 50 minutes Therefore, the Austrian units had to land without artillery support. As a result, and also because of the strong resistance of the Serbs, the crossing was difficult. In addition, the rising water in the rivers flooded the islands at the mouth of the river. Sava and low-lying areas of the Danube coast, which worsened the landing conditions and did not allow the telegraph cable to be delivered to the Serbian coast. The landing vanguard was left without communication and could not report the need for artillery support. This led to the fact that the forward shock battalions suffered significant casualties in men and materiel.
Only on October 9 did the steamers approach and, following the troops of the 59th Infantry Division, transported the 57th Infantry Division, which allowed the Austro-German troops to eventually capture Belgrade. Shock groups of the Austro-Hungarian troops rushed from the north into the city and the fortress of Belgrade, took the citadel and Vracharskie heights.
The 22nd German Reserve Corps reached the Sava River on the evening of October 6. Serbian troops were on the heights of Banovo, which so rose above the opposite bank that approaching the river during the day along the low and very swampy left bank of the river. Sava was extremely difficult. Therefore, the troops began to cross the river at night. Behind small islands off the Austrian coast, pontoons brought by pioneers (sappers) were hidden in advance, 10-15 pieces for each regiment crossing. The landing of troops on the pontoons began after 2 o'clock. nights of October 7. Within 15-20 minutes. the first echelons have already landed on the Serbian coast and on the Gypsy island. The rest of the troops followed. While the troops were crossing at night, the losses of the German troops were small, but at dawn the Serbian artillery intensified and they greatly increased. Having lost up to two-thirds of the pontoons, the German troops at about 8:00. in the morning, the crossing was suspended.
The advanced units (approximately one battalion per regiment) had to withstand Serbian counterattacks all day. The Germans and Austrians were saved by the fact that the main forces of the Serbian army had not yet managed to regroup from the Bulgarian direction. The crossing was resumed only in the evening, but with greater losses than on the first day. On October 8, the right-flank 208th reserve regiment occupied the first line of the Serbian position and went into the rear of the Serbs defending the Gypsy Island, which forced them to hastily retreat. As a result, the 207th Infantry Regiment was able to capture the serviceable Serbian bridge connecting the Gypsy Island with the coast. This made the crossing easier. Then the German troops went to storm the steep Banovski heights. A few hours later, thanks to the strong support of heavy artillery, the German troops broke the resistance of the Serbs.
Thanks to this success, on October 9, the 43rd German reserve division took the suburb of Belgrade - Topcidere. On the same day, after heavy street fighting, Austrian troops took Belgrade. Defending the city, about 5 thousand Serbs were killed. Many residents of the capital and people from other places, remembering the atrocities of the past Austro-Hungarian invasion, when civilians did not stand on ceremony, robbed, raped and killed, left their homes and joined the retreating army. The catastrophe began. The country was crumbling before our eyes.
Thus, on the third day of the operation, the Austro-German troops took the Serbian capital - Belgrade. However, the crossing at Belgrade was delayed and was completed instead of one in three days. The wrong calculation of the crossing by the Austro-German command could turn the whole enterprise into failure, if not for the persistence of the Germans, who broke the resistance of the Serbs with great losses, as well as the weakness of the Serbian army in the Belgrade direction and the complete superiority of the Austro-German troops in heavy artillery.
Source: Korsun N. Balkan Front of the World War 1914-1918.
The offensive of the 11th German army. The crossing of the 11th German army was prepared already in the spring and summer of 1915. Austrian sappers conducted reconnaissance of the river, completed fortification of positions on their bank, fixed roads and bridges. Reconnaissance revealed that the section from the mouth of the river is more convenient for crossing. Karas to Bazias, which allowed a covert concentration of troops and watercraft. The crossing was planned at once in four places: the mouth of the river. Karasa, Snake Island, the mouth of the river. Nera and Bazias. It was planned to build a bridge using the Serpent Island.
All these places were carefully studied and prepared for the crossing, taking into account weather conditions, the state of the water level and the likely actions of the Serbian troops. The estuaries of the rivers Karas and Nera were cleared of sediments and mines, and their fairway was deepened by blasting operations so that boats and pontoons could pass there. In addition, the engineering services prepared a dense network of roads in the places of the initial location of the troops, put up signs for the troops and set up observation posts. A feature of the landing of troops in this sector was a hurricane, which interrupted regular navigation for several days and interfered with sweeping operations.
Before the start of the operation, Austrian sappers raised eight barges that sank beyond the island of Ponyavica, and a steamer sunk by Serb artillery at St. Moldova. With great effort, the barges were raised and fixed, placing them on the coast of the island of Ponyavica under the cover of forest and bushes. The steamer was also raised and transported to the island of Ponyavica, covered with trees. In addition, at night, the Germans threw about 100 half-pontons, which they lowered along the river. Karasu to its mouth, and then along the river. Danube to the Snake Island, where they were dragged ashore and sheltered. The crossing was also provided by Austrian rowing ships, divisional and hull German bridge ferries.
The immediate goal of the German troops after the crossing was the capture of the Goritsy area and the Orlyak massif (south of Goritsa), and then the Klitsevan, Zaton'e line. The advanced troops were carrying ammunition for five days, provisions for six days, and large reserves of engineering equipment. This was a very reasonable decision, since the unleashing elements led to a break in the crossing.
Thus, the Austrians and Germans carefully prepared for the crossing of the water barrier. At the same time, all these preparations were carried out so secretly that the crossing on October 7 was unexpected for the Serbs.
On October 6, 1915, German artillery began shelling Serbian positions and by the morning of October 7, the fire was brought to the level of a hurricane. Despite the powerful fire of almost 40 batteries, which continued until the 10th Corps advance echelon, advancing from the Serpent Island, landed, the Serbs, after the Germans had transferred artillery fire inland, put up strong resistance at Ram. By the evening of October 7, two regiments of the 103rd Infantry Division were transported.
Then the German troops had to go through difficult days. On October 8 and 9, it was pouring rain, which turned into a storm. The hurricane continued until October 17. At this time, all means of crossing, except for the steamer, were inactive. A number of watercraft were damaged by the hurricane wind. At the same time, the Serbs were firing heavy artillery fire, and launched a counterattack, trying to throw the Germans into the river. With great difficulty, the steamer completed the transfer of the troops of the 103rd division. Only additional stocks of ammunition, food and various equipment allowed the Germans to survive. The storm ended only on October 17 and the remaining troops of the 10th German Corps were transferred to the other side. On October 21, the Germans built two bridges.
Thus, the thorough preparation of the operation allowed the German 11th Army to successfully cross the river, despite the 8-day hurricane. The Germans, with the help of powerful crossing means, without building a bridge, airlifted such large and well-equipped units that they were able to repel all enemy counterattacks and hold out until the main forces approached.
Further offensive by Mackensen's troops
The Serbian command began regrouping forces from the Bulgarian direction to the north with the aim of creating a strong defense on the path of the Austro-German troops. Austro-German troops, which delayed the crossing more than planned, by October 18 were able to advance on the southern bank of the river. The Danube is only 10 km away. The 19th Austro-Hungarian Corps, advancing on the Bosnian direction, also advanced slowly, overcoming stubborn resistance from the Montenegrin army.
On October 21, the vanguards of Mackensen's armies were on the Ripan, Kaliste line, and the Austro-Hungarian troops, which crossed the Lower Drina, reached Sabac. The offensive of the Austro-German troops proceeded with great difficulty, especially due to the lack of communication lines. The existing roads were damaged by autumn rains. The Austro-German troops were no longer delayed by the resistance of the Serbian troops, but by the dirt and roads clogged with people.
It was especially difficult for the 3rd Austro-Hungarian Army of Kövess, which was worse than the 11th Army in overcoming the resistance of the Serbs. The German High Command suggested that the Austrians strengthen the 3rd Army at the expense of troops from the Italian front. However, the Austrians were afraid of a new offensive by the Italian army and refused to the Germans. Indeed, on October 18, the third offensive of the Italian army began (the third battle of the Isonzo). However, the Italians were unable to help Serbia. All the attacks of the Italian divisions crashed against the powerful defenses of the Austrian army. The Austrians were ready for an enemy attack. The Italians laid down many soldiers, but made little progress. In November, the Italian army launched a fourth offensive against the Isonzo. Fierce fighting continued until December, all attempts by the Italian army were unsuccessful. To break through the strong Austrian defense, which took place in the mountainous terrain, the Italians had disastrously little heavy artillery.
On the left flank of the Austro-German Army Group Mackensen, the situation was also difficult. The weak Austrian group of Fyulonn, located at Orsova, failed to cross the Danube at the beginning of the operation. As a result, the Austrians were not able to immediately provide a junction between the 11th German and 1st Bulgarian armies, and the transportation of various supplies and materials along the Danube to Bulgaria. And the Bulgarian army was dependent on supplies from Austria and Germany.
Only on October 23, the Austrians in the area of \u200b\u200bthe city of Orsov were able to organize a powerful artillery barrage, with the participation of 420-mm guns. Hurricane artillery fire destroyed the Serbian fortifications. Under the cover of strong artillery and machine-gun fire (the width of the Danube near Orsova made it possible to conduct effective machine-gun fire on the other side), the Austrian troops were able to force the river and gain a foothold. After the arrival of reinforcements, the Austrians continued their offensive and seized the necessary bridgehead. Thus, with the help of strong artillery and machine-gun fire, the Austro-Hungarian group Fyulonna was able to break the resistance of the Serbian troops and force the Danube.
Bulgaria enters the war
On October 15, Bulgarian troops crossed the Serbian border. At first, the Bulgarian troops met fierce resistance from the Serbs and advanced rather slowly. Bulgarians for a long time unsuccessfully attacked the well-fortified positions of the Serbian army on the river. Timoka and north of Pirot. But on the left flank, Bulgarian troops were able to raid the Vranja station, where they destroyed the railway and telegraph office, cutting off Serbia's communications with the Allied forces in Thessaloniki.
By October 21, the 1st Bulgarian Army continued to storm the Serbian positions. The right wing and center of the Bulgarian army was located on the river. Timok between Zaychar and Knyazhevats, and the left wing fought at Pirot. Only on October 25 did the Bulgarian troops force the Serbs to withdraw beyond Timok. The 2nd Bulgarian Army easily reached the Vranja and Kumanov area, and intercepted the river with its left flank. Vardar near Veles. Thus, the Bulgarian troops interrupted the connection between the Serbian army and the allied expeditionary corps in Thessaloniki. This jeopardized the coverage of the main body of the Serb army.
To be continued…
A bit of background
To begin with, let us turn our attention to the state of Europe and the Middle East at the beginning of the second quarter of the 16th century. The strongest states of the continent Spain and France are busy sorting out relations in Italy - the rich lands of the Apennines were too tasty morsel to give them to the rival without a fight. The German lands were shaken by peasants (a real war broke out here in 1524-25) and religious uprisings. In Eastern Europe, it is also restless - in addition to an endless series of uprisings, there is a tense confrontation between Poland, Hungary and Austria.
Map of Europe in 1500
The main power in the Middle East - the Ottoman Porta, on the contrary, was in its prime. During the reign of Sultan Selim I (1512-20), the territory subordinated to the Turks doubled. The Sultan conquered vast lands in the east and south - all of Asia Minor, most of Iraq, the Caucasus, Palestine, Hejaz, Egypt, Mesopotamia became part of a huge empire. In 1520, the 26-year-old son of Selim Suleiman succeeded the Istanbul throne. The young sultan inherited a vast power with a formidable and advanced army. Suleiman was a gifted politician who was properly prepared to rule the state. Upon accession to the throne, he immediately drew attention to his European neighbors: Hungary, Moldavia, Austria.
Hungarian question
By the beginning of the 1520s, only one independent state remained near the Turkish borders in Europe - the Kingdom of Hungary, however, by the beginning of the war with Turkey it was in decline, although at the end of the 15th century Hungary was one of the most powerful states in Europe.
Suleiman I the Magnificent and Lajos II
King Matthias Hunyadi (1458−90) or Matthias Corvinus (Voron) managed to carry out a series of state reforms, put in order finances and apparatus, and create a new army. The illustrious monarch understood that Hungary was a bastion in the fight against the Ottomans, therefore he tried in every possible way to strengthen the state, while creating a stable alliance capable of resisting the Turkish threat. Matthias achieved great foreign policy successes, uniting Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia under his rule (the latter was divided between him and the Polish king Vladislav. Matthias got Moravia and Silesia) and even Austria, where Corvinus moved his capital. During his reign, it was also possible to restrain the aggression of the Turks, apparently, the genes of his father, the great commander and winner of the Ottomans, affected.
Hungarian army soldiers
An active dynastic policy, however, played a cruel joke with Matthias: he did not leave a legal heir, and the Polish king Vladislav succeeded to his throne. So in Hungary, the Jagiellonian dynasty was established (albeit not for long). Vladislav (1490-1516), crowned with the support of the nobility under the name Ulaslo II, was forced to weaken the royal power in the Hungarian lands and grant more and more rights to the nobility.
Hungary was in decline, although it was flourishing 30 years ago
This was completely different from what was required before the new aggravation of relations with the Ottomans and the growing expansion of the southern neighbor, and the peasant uprising of 1514, drowned in blood by the nobility, deprived Hungarian society of the consolidation that was so necessary at that time.
Young king
After the death of Ulaslo, Louis (Lajos II), who was only 10 years old, was declared the new king. For six years behind Lajos, his uncle ruled the country, and only in 1522 he was crowned ruler of Hungary and Bohemia. While the Hungarian nobility, headed by the king's uncle, was in power, Suleiman sent ambassadors to Buda demanding tribute - the Hungarian magnates arrogantly rejected all proposals, and the ambassadors were thrown into prison. Suleiman took the opportunity to gather an army and set off on a campaign against Lajos.
Five Years War
In 1521, the Turkish army invaded Hungary and laid siege to Belgrade, an important fortress in the south. Despite the heroic defense of the stronghold, the city was taken and became the main base of the Turks in their subsequent operations in Hungary.
Kingdom forces knocked down tycoon riots and peasant uprisings
For five years there was a trench warfare, and while the Sultan was busy with business on other fronts, the Hungarians even managed to defeat Turkish troops several times in local battles. However, in 1526, Suleiman decided to take up European affairs and gathered a large army to invade Hungary - more than 100 thousand people in total (the figure for a huge Ottoman power is quite real), the sultan himself was with the army, elite janissary units armed with firearms and fighting in the correct formation , a large number of excellent artillery for that time (about 300 guns!).
Siege of Belgrade 1521
In Buda, they did not rush to mobilize - the collection of the royal army began only in July, when the Sultan's army was already at the borders. The difficult political situation (social and economic problems hit the government's prestige painfully) hampered the mobilization of forces - some of the magnates and nobles refused to march at all, the Croatian contingents were still far away, and the units reformed by Matthias, recruited from commoners, could not be relied on after the previous massacres. years.
Suleiman sent the best troops and a huge artillery park
The hastily assembled army consisted of Hungarian light cavalry (ancestors of the famous Hungarian hussars) and heavy shock cavalry detachments of South Hungarian nobles and magnates and their servants. The infantry was represented by detachments of German mercenary landsknechts; these were the most professional and combat-ready units of the Hungarian army.
Turkish infantry Suleiman I
Over the summer, the Ottomans managed to take a number of fortresses on the border, crossed the Drava and reached the Mohacs plain, located only 250 kilometers from Buda, where Lajos was already waiting for them.
Mohacskoe field
At the end of the summer, the two troops met on the Mohacs Plain in southern Hungary. The troops of King Lajos - about 25 thousand people with 53 guns were formed in order of battle when they were discovered by the Sultan's intelligence. Suleiman offered the Hungarians to surrender, but they responded with a decisive refusal. The Sultan was not in vain confident in his superiority - on the battlefield he concentrated at least twice as large forces (and the Turks were better trained and equipped) and had a triple superiority in artillery.
Lajos tried to beat the Turks piece by piece - even successfully at first
The battlefield was a hilly plain with a small stream in the south, where the Turkish camp was located, bounded from the east by the Danube. The hills prevented the Turks from finding out the true intentions of the Hungarians - they pretended to set up camp and were not going to fight, then part of the Turkish army (the Rumeli army), which had already approached the battlefield, also began to set up camp. This was the idea of \u200b\u200bKing Lajos - he realized that in a battle with the entire Turkish army he had no chance, then he tried to defeat the Sultan's army in parts.
Outline of the Battle of Mohacs
While the Turks were defeating their bivouacs, the Hungarians rushed into battle - the Ottoman soldiers did not expect such a turn of affairs at all, so the first attack of the Hungarian knights was a stunning success. The forces of the Rumelian army did not show even a shadow of resistance and immediately fled. It seemed that Lajos' adventure could be successful and the Turks could be defeated piece by piece. At that moment, the approaching Turkish corps began to descend from the slopes of the hills in the south, including regiments of the Janissaries and detachments of sipahs.
Janissaries armed with muskets played a significant role in the victory
Suleiman, learning that the enemy was the first to strike and the Rumelians had a hard time, mobilized engineering teams that quickly repaired the roads in the path of the rest of the army and, at the first opportunity, brought troops into battle. The right wing of the Hungarians, where most of the shock cavalry was concentrated, ceased its attack. The reason was trivial: after defeating the first echelon of the Turkish army, the knights and soldiers began to plunder the enemy camp, deciding that the battle had already been won. At this time, the Janissaries struck the Hungarian center, mowing down whole ranks of Hungarians with musket fire. Added to the turmoil was artillery, which was actively used on both sides - here it produced more noise and smoke, which clouded the battlefield, while its effectiveness was questioned by historians.
A duel of cavalrymen. Miniature of the 16th century.
As soon as the Turkish reinforcements entered the battle, the Hungarian knights and light-nosed ones realized that things were bad and rushed to flee. Only detachments of mercenary infantry held out, but they could not do anything either, being actually surrounded. The battle turned into a rout.
Aftermath of the battle
The Hungarian army was annihilated by the Turks: about 15 thousand Christians fell, more than a thousand noble Hungarian nobles and barons were left to lie on the battlefield of Mohacs. King Lajos himself was killed by drowning while crossing the Danube. All prominent generals and military leaders from the Hungarian side were killed or captured. It is not for nothing that the day of the Battle of Mohacs is called "the greatest tragedy of Hungarian history." The losses of the Turks are estimated at one and a half to two thousand people.
Suleiman at Mohacs. 16th century Turkish miniature
The political and military consequences of the Battle of Mohacs can hardly be overestimated: just a few days later, Suleiman solemnly entered Buda, three years later he laid siege to Vienna, threatening reprisals now to the Habsburgs, and not to the Jagiellons. Hungary, where it was already restless, plunged into the abyss of a civil war - a confrontation between pro-German and pro-Turkish parties, each of which had its own contender for the throne, since Lajos did not leave an heir (the dynasty of Hungarian Jagiellons, which had existed for less than half a century, was cut short on him) ).
The battle sentenced Hungary - there was no one to stop the Sultan
In the end, Hungary was divided between the Turks and the Austrians: southern and central Hungary became part of the Turkish vilayet Buda (the capital of former Hungary was finally occupied by the Turks only in 1541), and northern Hungary henceforth entered the zone of influence of the Habsburgs. For a century and a half, most of Hungary was part of the Ottoman Empire, and as an independent state, Hungary disappeared from the map of Europe for 400 years.
Map of Hungary for 1550
In the art of war, the Mohacs battle in the brightest way demonstrated the superiority of firearms over cold ones. Like the Battle of Pavia, which took place just a year before Mohács, artillery and especially infantry with muskets were essential to achieve a quick and decisive victory. It took the Sultan's troops only an hour and a half to deal with the Hungarians. After Mohacs, all over Europe realized that the fight against the Ottomans was a coalition affair - the victory over the Turks at Lepanto (1571) was a kind of lesson learned from the Mohacs battle.
Mohacs is called "the tragedy of the Hungarian people"
Nevertheless, in the memory of the Hungarians, the Battle of Mohacs remains one of the most notable and heroic pages in the history of the people. The image of King Lajos, who deliberately entered into an unequal battle with the Turk, is romanticized and surrounded by an aura of heroism and courage, and the word Mohacs is associated not only with a terrible defeat, but also with the courage and despair with which ordinary nobles fought, defending their land from invaders.
The middle of the 15th century was unfortunate for Europe. The armies of the Ottoman Empire rushed to the Northeast to raise the Prophet's green banner over all European capitals. Slavic Belgrade, was then a border fortress of the Hungarian kingdom and was for the Turks the key to the Hungarian lands.
Sultan Mehmed II, with a hundred and sixty thousandth army, three hundred cannons and a fleet of two hundred pennants, did not doubt his victory. These were selected and battle-tested troops. The regent of the Hungarian crown, General Janos Hunyadi, had much less strength. He himself collected troops throughout Hungary, not shying away from European mercenaries. Several thousand cosineers were brought to him by the Francican monk John Capistrana, who declared a crusade against the Ottomans. Under this slogan, urban and peasant squads, detachments of Hungarian princes began to pull up. But the main forces of the Turks in the amount of 60,000 people had already approached the Belgrade fortress, and there, under the command of Captain Mihai Siladya and Laszlo Hunyadi (son of the regent), there were only 7,000 soldiers. The Turks began a siege on July 4, 1456, and on July 14, Hunyadi, at the head of the Danube flotilla, with a sudden blow broke the naval blockade of Belgrade, sinking three Turkish ships and capturing two dozen. Reinforcements (about 10-12 thousand soldiers) and supplies were delivered to the fortress. Peasant detachments of Capistrana also pulled up to the area of \u200b\u200bthe fortress, but the Turks did not take them seriously, but in vain.
And the siege continued, the Turks, taking advantage of the absolute advantage in artillery, broke through the outer wall by July 21 and burst into the city. But Hunyadi used military cunning. A lot of combustible materials were concentrated on the outer fortress wall and, at a signal from the inner city, the bursting janissaries were surrounded from the rear by a wall of fire and from the castle the Hungarian knights went on the attack. The Turks suffered heavy losses and retreated.
When during this fight. on one of the bastions the Turks managed to establish their banner, the Serbian volunteer Titus Dugovic, cut his shaft with a saber and rushed, clutching the enemy banner in his hands, down from the wall. Hereditary nobility was granted to his children.
The Turkish troops were upset and retreated to their camp. The Hungarians took up defensive positions along the outer city wall. The captain of Siladya, fearing a trap from the Turks, who still had a numerical advantage, forbade making forays towards the Turkish camp, but the human factor worked. The battlefield between the fortress and the camp was strewn with the bodies of the killed Turks, and all the Hungarians and Serbs knew that the Janissaries and Sipakhs carried the stolen gold with them, and the captured weapons were not superfluous. More and more Hungarians went beyond the walls of the fortress and gradually they began to approach the Turkish camp. Sultan Mehmed decided that this was an offensive and threw several regiments of sipahs against the Hungarians, the battle began to boil. Kapistran, deciding that the Turks were advancing in earnest, struck with the forces of two thousand kosiners in the rear of the Turkish army, along the Sava River. Hunyadi seized the moment, threw his troops on the Turkish batteries and captured them. The Sultan personally led his janissary guard into battle, but was wounded. And the Turks fled again, but this time in earnest. In the morning, the Hungarians discovered an empty Turkish camp. The data on the number of troops and losses of the parties varies greatly depending on the sources. The number of Turkish troops is determined at 100 - 160 thousand people (with losses from 60 to 80 thousand), the number of Hungarian-Serbian soldiers in the battle zone is indicated - 40 - 50 thousand (with total losses from 6 to 10 thousand people)
There were also Turkish invasions of Europe, but the Belgrade fortress stood until 1521. And in 1529 and 1683 the Ottomans stormed Vienna.
But the eighteenth century, the century of Catherine the Great, was already shining on the horizon. And the glow of Chesma, the brilliance of Suvorov's sword and the volleys of Ushakov's cannons, put an end to the Turkish expansion.
As an honest Historian, I must add that there was another case of a successful sekurs of a besieged fortress, similar to Belgrade. This is the sad first Narva campaign of Peter the Great. There, 12,000 soldiers, with 12 guns of Karl of Sweden, came to the aid of besieged Narva, defeated the Russian army of Duke Kruja with 37,000 bayonets and a hundred and fifty guns. It is certainly a shame, but it was not in vain that Peter said that the students will learn and will thank their teachers. And that characteristically repaid ... Near Poltava ... And the entire Baltic region (including the Leningrad region) together with Narva entered the Russian Empire.
Thank you that because of political correctness, Peter did not give Gorbachev to the Swedes.